CHAPTER 4 Flashcards
1) allows us to escape the realm of pure speculation or appeal to authority
2) helps us extend and modify our theories as well as establish their parsimony and utility
Research
Can lead people to erroneous conclusions. However, it is through such observation that we develop hypotheses that can eventually be tested more systematically
Unsystematic Observation
- Is more systematic and rigorous than unsystematic observation. It is neither casual nor freewheeling but is carefully planned in advance.
- It is also possible that in the midst of observing or recording responses, the observer may unwittingly interfere with or influence the events under study.
Naturalistic Observation
While the research may be carried out in the field or in relatively natural settings, the investigator exerts some degree of control over the events.
Controlled Observation
- Involves the intensive study of a client or patient who is in treatment. Under the heading of ___________ we include material from interviews, test responses, and treatment accounts.
- Have been especially useful for (a) providing descriptions of rare or unusual phenomena or novel, distinctive methods of interviewing, assessing, or treating patients; (b) disconfirming “universally” known or accepted information; and (c) generating testable hypotheses.
Case Study
Is the study of the incidence, prevalence, and distribution of illness or disease in a given population.
Epidemiology
gives us some sense of whether the rate of new cases of the illness or disorder is on the increase
Incidence
estimate what percentage of the target population is affected by the illness or disorder
Prevalence
These techniques enable us to determine whether variable X is related to variable Y.
The Technique
- To correlate two variables, we first obtain
two sets of observations. - example: Pearson-product correlation
coefficient; Scatterplot
Correlational Methods
The Question of Causality
- Correlational methods cannot answer the question of cause and effect. Correlational methods can demonstrate that a cause–effect hypothesis is not valid.
- Third-variable problem: the investigator must avoid assuming that one variable causes the other because there is always the possibility that a third (unmeasured) variable is involved.
- A way of examining the interrelationships among a number of variables at the same time.
- The idea is that when variables change together, they must have some element in common that underlies their relationship.
Factor Analysis
- is one that evaluates or compares individuals, perhaps of different age groups, at the same point in time.
- it is also correlational because the investigator cannot manipulate age nor can participants be assigned to different age groups.
Cross—Sectional Design
- follows the same subjects over time.
- studies are those in which we collect data on the same people over time. Such designs allow us to gain insight into how behavior or mental processes change with age.
Longitudinal Design
Issues in Longitudinal Design
1) Mortality
2) Maturation
dropping out of participants from the group
Mortality
natural biological of physiological changes operating as a function of passage time
Maturation
- to determine cause–effect relationships among events, we must use __________
- it also uses scientific methods to collect data and perform research about wide range of behavioral topics among humans
Experimental Method
Variable that is being manipulated
Independent Variable
Variable that is being observed
Dependent Variable
Variable that is being constant
Control Variable
Any variable that has the potential to influence dependent variable
Extraneous Variable
A variable that had an unwanted effect to the dependent variable
Confounding Variable
A potential independent variable help constant during the experiment so as not to cause an effect on dependent variable.
Control Variable
Observation comes first before a theory is formulated. Also called exploratory approach like Freud’s theory
Induction Method
Theory is selected first before gathering data which can confirm or debunk the premises of the theory. Also called confirmatory approach.
Deduction Method
We have two separate sets of participants, each of which receives a different kind of treatment or intervention. In its simplest form, an experimental group (receiving some form of treatment) is compared to a control group (receiving no treatment at all).
Between Group Design
Comparisons might be made on the same patient at different points in time.
Within—Group Design
That is, we are not sure that the obtained outcome is really attributable to our manipulation of the independent variable. Some studies do not even include a control group for comparison with an experimental group.
Internal Validity
Threats to internal Validity:
Testing
Instrumentation
Statistical Regression
Selection
Familiarity (practice/carryover effect) of pretest may improve the performance of the post-test.
Testing
Any changes in the measuring tools used may account for the difference of results
Instrumentation
Participants who received extreme scores in the pre-test to receive less extreme score on the post-test.
Statistical Regression
Choosing of respondents may be biased.
Selection
When it is discovered that the results of an experiment cannot be generalized beyond the narrow and exact conditions of the experiment, the research does not show ____________
External Validity
Factors that influences external validity:
Selection of Sampling
Literal
Triangulation
Reactive effect of experimental arrangement
when subjects selected might be unusually susceptible to the effects of the experimental variable, the result would not be realizable to a larger group.
Selection of sampling
exact duplication of an investigation, except with a different sample selected from a population or universe.
Literal
duplication of problem but different methodology.
Triangulation
findings observable in the laboratory may not be directly applicable to real life setting.
Reactive effect of experimental arrangement
Different effects:
Hawthorne
Placebo
Allegiance
Demand characteristics
attempt to change behavior because they are being evaluated
Hawthorne
person’s belief in the benefit from the treatment
Placebo
a bias resulted from the investigator’s allegiance to his/her preferences
Allegiance
cues that might indicate the research objectives to participants.
Demand characteristics
Strategies in methods:
Single Blind Experiment
Double Blind Experiment
Triple Blind Experiment
participants are deliberately kept ignorant (blinded) about which group/condition they belong to.
Single Blind Experiment
since researchers are unaware of which subjects are receiving the real treatment, they are less likely to reveal accidentally subtle cues that might influence the outcome of the research.
Double Blind Experiment
neither the subject nor the person administering the response to treatment knows which subjects are receiving a particular treatment.
Triple Blind Experiment
Are an outgrowth of behavioral and operant approaches. They bear similarities to both experimental and case study methods. The focus is on the responses of one participant only.
- are often used to study the effectiveness of a therapeutic method.
Single-case Designs
Single-case designs that observe systematic changes in the participant’s behavior as the treatment and no-treatment conditions alternate. The initial baseline period is followed by a treatment period, a treatment reversal period, and a second treatment period.
ABAB designs
Designs used when it is not possible or ethical to employ a treatment reversal period. In this design, baselines are established for two (or more) behaviors, treatment is introduced for one behavior, and then treatment is introduced for the second behavior as well. By observing changes in each behavior from period to period, one may draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the treatments.
Multiple Baseline Designs
Research designs that combine both experimental and correlational methods. In this design, participants from naturally occurring groups of interest (e.g., people with panic disorder and people with social phobia) are assigned to each experimental treatment, allowing the experimenter to determine whether the effectiveness of the treatments varies by group classification.
- Combined aspects of between-group and within-group designs
Mixed Design
Detailed information
Case Study Methods
Externally valid results
Epidemiology / Correlational Methods
- Internally valid results
- Can determine causality
Experimental Methods and Single-case designs
Internally and externally valid results
Mixed Designs
- Researchers must inform the participants of any risks, discomforts, or limitations on confidentiality and any compensation;
- It also guarantees the participant’s privacy, safety, and freedom to withdraw.
Informed Consent
- Participants’ individual data and responses should be confidential and guarded from public scrutiny.
- Consent is obtained before disclosing any confidential and personally identifiable information in any of the psychologist works.
Confidentiality
Is sometimes used in research when knowing the true purpose of a study would change the participants’ responses or produce non-veridical data.
- should be used only when the research is important and there is no alternative
Deception
It should be explained to participants why the research is being carried out, why it is important, and what the results have been.
Debriefing
- Data that are fabricated, altered, or otherwise falsified by the experimenter.
- Under no circumstances may they alter obtained data in any way.
Fraudulent of Data
