Chapter 4 Flashcards
Give a comprehensible definition of a syllable.
When we pronounce or hear words, we are intuitively able to divide them into smaller acoustic units, which do not necessarily carry lexical or grammatical meaning. These units can be represented by just one segment of speech – one speech count, or by an entire sequence of speech sounds. Units of this sort are called syllables.
- Explain the word stress.
Stress is defined as a conscious prominence-increasing change of length, loudness, and pitch of the syllable, fulfilling certain lexical and grammatical functions
Explain and give examples of primary and secondary stress.
Primary stress is the increase of loudness, length, and variation of pitch of a syllable, which gives it a high degree of prominence. We indicate it by means of a small vertical mark placed high up before the syllable it refers to - ‘
Secondary stress is the increase of loudness, length, and variation of pitch of a syllable (s), which gives the syllable (s) a medium degree of prominence. In English, secondary stress can either precede or follow the primary stress. We can find it in words consisting of two and more syllables, and there are usually not more than two secondary stress in one word. It can be placed on any syllable. We indicate it by means of a small vertical mark placed low down before the syllable it refers to -
Explain and provide examples of the variation of word stress
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Define sentence stress
Sentence stress (phrasal stress) is the relative degree of force given to the different words in a sentence. Similar to word-stress, it is a conscious prominence-increasing change of loudness, length and pitch. The overall degree of prominence is also influenced by the sonority of the sounds in the syllable. Sentence stress is distributed over different words within the sentence.
Explain the late stress principle.
Primary stress is normally placed on the last lexical word in a phrase or a sentence.
,next ‘year. could have ‘seen. It’s ,too ‘soon.
Explain the relation between stress and the number of lexical words. Give examples.
Lexical words have a stateable lexical meaning, and they are the counterpart of grammatical words. In lexical words, lexical meaning prevails over their grammatical meaning. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, and adverbs. The dividing line between grammatical and lexical words is not always clear-cut.
The most basic principle of sentence, stress is that we normally place it on all lexical words in the sentence. For example, in the following sentence, all lexical words are stressed ( they have either primary or secondary stress)
The ‘price is the ,thing that a’nnoys me.
Explain and give an example of logical emphasis in sentence stress.
The placement of primary stress may depend on which word needs to be logically emphasized, i.e. it does not have to follow the late stress principle.
He is my ‘brother. He is ‘my ,brother. He ‘is my ,brother.
Explain the notion of “prominence” concerning stress.
The combination of the four factors – quality, quantity, loudness, and pitch will be called prominence.
What are the three degrees of prominence (stress)?
- Syllables with a high degree of prominence – syllables carrying primary stress
- Syllables with a medium degree of prominence – syllables carrying secondary stress
- Syllables with a low degree of prominence – unstressed syllables
Explain the secondary stress treatment in simple and derived words with primary stress on the first syllable. Give an example.
Simple and derived words have no secondary stress if the primary stress is on the first syllable, e.g. buttering /’bʌtərɪŋ/
Explain the secondary stress treatment if a simple or derived word begins with a
syllable not containing the vowel /i:/. Give an example
Simple words and derived words beginning with a syllable not containing the vowel /i:/ have no secondary stress if the primary stress is on the second syllable e.g. above /ə’bʌv/
Explain the secondary stress treatment if simple and derived words have the primary stress on the second syllable and the first syllable contains the vowel /i:/. Give an example.
Simple and derived words with the primary stress on the second syllable have the secondary stress on the first syllable if the first syllable contains the vowel /i:/, e.g. redo / ,ri: ‘du /
Explain the secondary stress treatment in the derived words, which have three syllables; the primary stress is on the third syllable. Give an example.
Derived words that have the primary stress on the third syllable always have the secondary stress on the first syllable, e.g. possibility /,posɪ ‘bɪlɪtɪ /
Explain the primary and secondary stress in compounds. Give examples.
Compounds that have the primary stress on the second element always have the secondary stress on the first element, e.g. bad tempered /,bæd ‘tempəd/
Compounds and compound derivatives that have the primary stress on the first syllable can have the secondary stress on the second element if the second element consists of more than one syllable, e.g. typewriter / ‘taɪp ,raɪtə/
Give an example of a stress-neutral prefix and a prefix that can be both neutral and stress-carrying.
Neutral prefixes (prefixes which do not have primary stress)
Prefix Root word Prefixed word
De - code decode
Dis - able disable
Both neutral and stress-carrying prefixes ( prefixes which sometimes do and sometimes do not have primary stress)
Prefix Function Root word Prefixed word
Anti- Neutral Catholic anti - Catholic
Stress carrying hero antihero
Give an example of an stress-neutral and an stress-carrying suffix.
Neutral suffixes – suffixes which do not have primary stress
Suffix – - able Suffix - -ful
Root word – honour Root word - play
Prefixed word – honourable Prefixed word - playful
Explain the sentence stress treatment if there are two lexical words in a phrase or a sentence.
Two lexical words in a phrase or sentence
When a phrase/sentence consists of 2 lexical words, the usual stress pattern is /, ‘/. That is, we place secondary stress on the first lexical word and primary stress on the second lexical word.
,pouring ‘rain ,quite ‘frankly ,Good ‘morning
Explain the sentence stress treatment if there are three lexical words in a phrase or a sentence.
Three lexical words in a phrase or sentence
When a phrase/sentence has 3 lexical words, the stress pattern /’ , ‘/ is often used. In other words, primary stress is placed on the first and the third lexical words and secondary stress is placed on the second lexical word.
She has ‘made ,several ‘movies. ‘Dan ,phoned for a ‘taxi. ‘Put your ,name ‘here.
Explain the stress treatment in intensifiers.
Intensifiers, such as absolutely, terribly, bloody, total, complete, damn, etc. Usually receive primary stress.
Give a comprehensible definition of intonation.
Intonation is a very complex phenomenon for which it is rather difficult to find a satisfactory definition. The majority of the definitions proposed so far, however, agree that the most important role in intonation is played by the pitch of the voice. We will define intonation as the distinctive variations which take place in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.
Intonation may have a grammatical function. Explain and give an example of
intonation fulfilling the function of the comma.
The function of the comma in written language is reflected in two ways in speech. Firstly, it may be indicated in speech as a short pause, or, secondly, it may be indicated by the preceding tone-unit.
‘Those ,who v sold, | ,quickly ,made a \ profit.
Give rules/explain of intonation treatment in question tags.
Tag questions are question structures consisting of an auxiliary verb plus pronoun, attached to the end of a statement in order to convey a negative or positive orientation. Depending on the tone used, we distinguish two types of tag-questions:
- Tag-questions expressing certainty ( we are forcing the other person to agree with us)
He’s your \ brother, \ isn’t he? - Tag – questions expressing uncertainty ( we are asking for the other person’s opinion)
He’s your \ brother, / isn’t he?
