Chapter 2

Question 1

Explain how vowels are produced (focus on the air obstruction)

Answer 1

Vowels are those sounds which are produced without any obstruction to the flow of air
in the vocal tract. They are speech sounds produced by a relatively free passage of breath through oral cavity, usually forming the most prominent and central sound of syllable.

Question 2

Explain the terms pure and gliding vowels

Answer 2

Vowels can be divided into pure vowels (monophthongs) and gliding vowels (diphthongs and triphthongs). Pure vowels are speech sounds in which the tongue remains in a relatively fixed position during the entire duration of the vowel. Examples of pure vowels: /ɪ/, /ʊ/ ,/æ/,/ɜ:/…
Gliding vowels are diphthongs and triphthongs. Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one sound to another within the same syllable. Examples: /aɪ/, /aʊ/, /ɔɪ/…
Triphthongs are glides from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced fluently, without interruption. Examples: /aɪə/, /aʊə/

Question 3

Define vowels from the phonetic and the phonological point of view.

Answer 3

Phonetically, vowels can be defined as voiced speech sounds produced by the relatively free breath, without any closure or narrowing in the vocal tract that would cause audible friction. From a phonological point of view, vowels can be characterized as those units which form the centre/ nucleus of syllables.

Question 4

How do we describe vowels according to the length of vocal fold vibration?

Answer 4

Depending on how long the vocal folds vibrate during the production of vowels, we distinguish between (relatively) short and (relatively) long vowels. The absolute length of English vowels depends on the nature of the sounds that follow them.

Question 5

How do we describe vowels according to the position of the soft palate

Answer 5

When the soft palate is raised (closing the entrance to the nasal cavity) the vowels produced are purely oral. When the soft palate is lowered, the vowels are nasalized.

Question 6

How do we describe vowels according to the shape of the lips?

Answer 6

The shape of the lips or lip-rounding is another important variable of vowel quality. We distinguish three stages of lip-rounding. Lips can be rounded, as for /u:/, spread as /i:/, or neutral as for ə

Question 7

How do we describe vowels according to the horizontal position of the highest point
of the tongue?

Answer 7

The tongue or more specifically its raised part can assume many different positions it the oral cavity. This mobility is usually horizontal that is the tongue can move from back to front and vice versa. According to this horizontal movement we distinguish three distinct tongue positions_ front, central and back vowels made it these positions can be respectively described as front, central and back.

Question 8

How do we describe vowels according to the vertical position of the highest point of
the tongue?

Answer 8

The mandible, or lower jaw can assume different degrees of openness. These degrees play an important role in the production of vowels. Based on the degree of openness and the consequent vertical position of the tongue we distinguish 4 different types of vowels: close e.g. /i:/, close- mid (or half-close) e.g. /ɔ:/, open- mid (or half- open) /e/ and open /ɑ:/

Question 9

How do we describe vowels according to the muscular tension of the tongue?

Answer 9

According to the muscular tension of the tongue English vowels can be divided into tense and lax. Tense vowels are those which are supposed to require greater muscular tension on the part of tongue, lax vowels are those in which the tongue is supposed to be held loosely. The terms tense and lax usually apply only to close vowels, i,e, /I/- /i:/.

Question 10

Explain the cardinal vowel system.

Answer 10

Cardinal vowel system was devised by Daniel Jones. It allows to accurately define any vowel od any language. The vowels that form this system are called cardinal vowels. These are given as a standard reference system. They represent the range of vowels that the human vocal apparatus can make and this system allows us to describe, classify and compare the vowels of any language. Cardinal vowels are enclosed in square brackets, because they indicate the real physical articulations- speech- sounds. Cardinal vowels ate located on a specially shaped vowel diagram (quadrilateral) and they can be divided into primary cardinal vowels and secondary cardinal vowels. Primary cardinal vowels are very similar to the vowels in many European languages.

Question 11

Describe/explain the cardinal vowel diagram.

Answer 11

Cardinal vowels no 1 has symbol [i] and it is produced by the front of the tongue raised as close as possible to the palate without any friction noise. It is the most front and close vowel that is possible to make Cardinal vowel no. 5 has the sybol [ɑ] and it is produced by the whole of the tongue as low as possible in the mouth, with a very slight raising at the extreme back. I tis the most open and back vowel that it is possible to make Cardinal vowel no. 8 has the symbol [u] and it is articulated by the back of the tongue raised as close as possible to the velum. It is a fully close and back vowel. Cardinal vowel no. 4 has the symbol [a] and it is a fully open front vowel. These four cardinal vowels represent extreme points it the pronunciation of vowels. Secondary cardinal vowels can be made by alternating the primary cardinal vowels in terms of lip rounding. (examples on the page 52 in book)

Question 12

Explain the phenomenon of clipping concerning sound length.

Answer 12

The length of English vowels decreases when they are followed by a voiceless consonant. This phenomenon is called clipping and the rule applies to both short, long monophthongs and diphthongs.

Question 13

Give the rules of clipping of English vowels

Answer 13

When English vowels are followed by a voiceless consonant it is slightly shortened- clipped. When it is followed by voiced sound or a pause it retains its original length- it is unclipped. Clipping is most noticeable with monophthongs and diphthongs in stressed syllables.

Question 14

Explain the notions of falling and rising diphthongs and give examples.

Answer 14

English distinctive diphthongs are equivalent in length to the English long (relatively pure) vowels they consist of 2 vowel sounds, one of which is usually longer and more prominent. When the first part of diphthong is longer and more prominent, the diphthong is said to be falling (descending). When the second part is longer and more prominent, the diphthong is said to be rising (ascending). All English distinctive diphthongs occurring in a stressed syllable ale falling e.g. late, fight, here. In unstressed syllables however, diphthongs ɪə, ʊə are rising and the rest of the diphthongs are falling e.g. period, familiar, ambiguous.

Question 15

Name English monophthongs.

Answer 15

/iː/ , /ɪ/ , /e/, /æ/, /ɑː/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/,/ɔː/, /ʊ/, /uː/, /ə/, /ɜː/

Question 16

Define a monophthong.

Answer 16

A pure vowel. Vowel sound where there is not detectable change in quality during a syllable. In British English there ate twelve of them

Question 17

Define a diphthong

Answer 17

A gliding vowel. It is a complex speech sound beginning with one vowel sound and moving to another vowel sound within the same syllable. They form centre syllables.

Question 18

What are the categories of English diphthongs based on the type of sounds they
consist of? Give an example of each type.

Answer 18

According to the type of sounds they consist of diphthongs can be divided into closing and centring. Closing diphthongs can be further divided into closing diphthongs ending in /ɪ/ (/eɪ/, /aɪ/ and / ɔɪ/) and ending in /ʊ/ (/əʊ/ and /aʊ/). Centring diphthongs are ending in /ə/ (/ɪə/, /eə/ and /ʊə/). Closing diphthongs are called closing because during their pronunciation the lower jaw makes a closing movement. Therefore the vowel these diphthongs end with is also a close vowel. A glide form a relatively open towards a relatively close vowel is produced. Centring diphthongs are called this way because they glide towards the vowel ə which is a central vowel.

Question 19

Define a triphthong

Answer 19

It is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption. These 3 vowels in succession can create 5 combinations. All of these 3-vowel sequences are formed by adding the /ə/ vowel to a closing diphthong. Triphthongs are not considered to be phonemes in the traditional sense.

Question 20

Explain the weakening of central elements in triphthongs

Answer 20

In present-day English there are tendencies towards the weakening of the central elements of triphthongs. The vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ are often weakened and sometimes disappear altogether. It can be represented by putting the middle elements of triphthongs in round brackets e.g. fire /fa(ɪ)ə/.

Question 21

What is the definition of consonants?

Answer 21

Consonants can be defined phonetically as speech produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any various constrictions of the speech organs. From phonological POV consonants are those units which function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters. There are 24 consonants in English.

Question 22

How are consonants classified according to the source of the energy?

Answer 22

The source of energy foe the production of the majority of English sounds comes from the lungs. Sounds produced by the energy of the airstream from lungs are called pulmonic. Sounds in the production of which there is no involvement of the lungs are called non-pulmonic.

Question 23

How are consonants classified according to the direction of the airstream?

Answer 23

When the airstream is forced out of lungs the sounds produced are called egressive. Sounds made by the airstream sucked inwards are known as ingressive.

Question 24

How are consonants classified according to the vocal-fold activity?

Answer 24

When the vocal folds are active (vibrating), voiced sounds are produced. When there is no vocal fold activity (not vibrating) voiceless sounds are made.

Question 25

How are consonants classified according to the position of the soft palate?

Answer 25

When the soft palate is raised the airstream is released through the mouth only. Sounds produced in this manner are called oral. When the soft palate is lowered slightly the airstream is released both through the oral and nasal cavities. Sounds made in this was are called nasalizes. When the soft palate is lowered and the oral passage is blocked completely the airstream escapes solely through the nasal cavity. Sounds produced in this manner are called nasal.

Question 26

How are consonants classified according to the place of articulation? Give an example
of each type.

Answer 26

Organs of articulation can make different contacts in different places.
1. Bilabial- the upper and lower lips make contact- /p/, /b/, /m/
2. Labiodental- the lower lip and the upper teeth make contact- /f/, /v/
3. Dental- the tongue makes contact with upper teeth- /ð/
4. Alveolar- the tongue makes contact with alveolar ridge- /t/, /d/, /l/, /n/
5. Post- alveolar- the tongue makes contact with the rear part of the alveolar ridge /r/
6. Retroflex- the tip of the tongue is curled back and makes contact with the hard palate, e.g. General American /r/
7. Palate- alveolar- the tongue makes contact with alveolar ridge and hard palate /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/
8. Palatal- the tongue makes contact with the hard palate- /j/
9. Velar- the back of the tongue makes contact with the soft palate- /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
10. Uvular- the back of the tongue makes contact with the uvula e.g. French /r/
11. Glottal- the vocal folds are narrowed and make friction with or without vibration /h/

Question 27

How are consonants classified according to the manner of articulation? Give an
example of each type.

Answer 27

The closure or narrowing during the articulation of consonants can be of different types. Each type produced characteristic groups of consonants:
1. Occlusives: complete occlusion
(a) single occlusion- with oral air-flow- /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /c/…
with nasal air-flow- /m/, /n/…
(b) repeated occlusion- /r/
2. Semi-occlusives: complete occlusion+ constriction- /ts/, /dz/…
3. Constrictives: narrowing with friction- /s/, /z/, /f/, /v/…
4. Approximants: narrowing without friction
(a) with central air-flow- /j/, /w/…
(b) with lateral air-flow /l/…

Question 28

How are consonants classified according to the articulating organs involved? Give an
example of each type.

Answer 28

Depending on the active articulating organ used, we distinguish these classes of speech sounds:
1. Labial
(a) Bilabial: /p/, /b/, /m/…
(b) Labiodental: /f/, /v/…
2. Lingual
(a) Apical- /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/…
(b) Laminal- /s/, /z/…
(c) Pre-dorsal- /j/, /c/…
(d) Post-dorsal- /k/, /g/…
(e) Radical
3. Glottal- /h/

Question 29

How are consonants classified according to the auditory impression?

Answer 29

Consonants can be classified according to the presence or absence of a noise component. Those consonants during the production of which there is an audible noise component are called obstruents. Those consonants during the production of which there is no audible noise component are classified as sonorants.
1. Obstruents
(a) Plosives
(b) Fricatives
(c) Affricates
2. Sonorants
(a) Oral- /j/, /w/, /r/, /l/…
(b) Nasal- /m/, /n/…

Question 30

Name 6 distinctive plosive consonants in English

Answer 30

/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/

Question 31

Define plosives. What are the three main phases of plosive production?

Answer 31

This type of consonants produces plosion which is the escape of the compressed air from the mouth. They are sometimes called stops because during their articulation they form a complete obstruction in the mouth and stop the airstream issuing the lungs.
The production of plosives consist of 3 main phases. (voiceless consonants have 4 phrases).
1. Closure phrase- the articulators move to form an obstruction (stricture)
2. Hold phase- the air compresses behind the closure
3. Release phase- the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly allowing the compressed air to escape abruptly. During the release the escape of air produces an audible noise called plosion.
4. Post-release phase- the ais escaping through the vocal folds makes a sound similar to /h/. this additional puff of air is called aspiration. It is noticeable only in some contexts.

Question 32

Define English Affricates and give examples.

Answer 32

They can be characterized as complex consonants which begin as plosives and end as fricatives. Even though they consist of 2 different sound, affricatives are considered to be single independent phonemes and can be found in all positions in words. There are 2 affricatives in English: /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. F.e. change, feature, much, age, urgent.

Question 33

Define English Fricatives and give examples.

Answer 33

They can be defined as sounds produced by forcing airstream through a narrow opening causing local air turbulence. In common with plosives and affricates, fricatives are characterized by a noise component. The degree of voicing of viced fricatives may vary according to the context. There are nine fricatives.
1. Labiodental Fricatives:
* /f/ as in “fine” (voiceless)
* /v/ as in “vine” (voiced)
2. Dental Fricatives:
* /θ/ as in “think” (voiceless)
* /ð/ as in “this” (voiced)
3. Alveolar Fricatives:
* /s/ as in “see” (voiceless)
* /z/ as in “zebra” (voiced)
4. Post-Alveolar Fricatives:
* /ʃ/ as in “shoe” (voiceless)
* /ʒ/ as in “measure” (voiced)
5. Palatal Fricatives:
* /ç/ as in the German “ich” (voiceless)
* /ʝ/ (voiced) - Note: While less common, voiced palatal fricatives exist in some languages, though /ʝ/ is often considered a voiced palatal approximant.
6. Glottal Fricatives:
* /h/ as in “hat” (voiceless)
* /ɦ/ (voiced) - Note: Voiced glottal fricatives are less common but can be found in some languages.

Question 34

Explain nasals and Approximants and give examples

Answer 34

Nasals are produced with the soft palate in its lowered position, allowing air to escapee into nasal cavity. All nasals are continuants that is they can be produced as long as one has enough air in the lungs. They do not contain any noise component in their production. They belong among sonorants. All English nasal are voiced. There are 3 nasals:
1. /m/:Example: “milk.”
2. /n/: Example: “nose.”
3. /ŋ/: Example: “sing.”

Question 35

Explain the difference between the Slovak /n/ and English /ŋ/

Answer 35

The Slovak /n/ and English /ŋ/ represent different nasal sounds, and the primary difference lies in their place of articulation.
1. Slovak /n/: The Slovak /n/ is an alveolar nasal sound. It is produced by raising the tongue to make contact with the alveolar ridge, which is the bony ridge just behind the upper front teeth. The air flows out through the nose, and the vocal cords typically vibrate, making it a voiced sound. An example in Slovak is the word “nos” (meaning “nose”).
2. English /ŋ/: The English /ŋ/ is a velar nasal sound. It is produced with the back of the tongue making contact with the soft palate or velum, which is the soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth. Like the Slovak /n/, the air flows out through the nose, and the sound is voiced. An example in English is the end of the word “sing.”