Chapter 1

Question 1

Explain the notions of Langue and Parole

Answer 1

Language – abstract system of language
Parole – Speech, language in use

Question 2

Explain the concepts of Competence and Performance

Answer 2

Competence – knowledge of system and rules
Performance – actual use of the rules in speaking with errors, memory limitations

Question 3

Explain the design feature of arbitrariness. Outline its relation to Phonetics and Phonology

Answer 3

In human language there is no direct link between lanugage and its meaning. There are some expections called onomatopoeic words such as ding-dong, these words actually resemble the real sounds, they are phonetically motivated

Question 4

Explain the design feature of duality

Answer 4

Language works on two levels
Phonemes – meaningless in isolation but we can put them into words
Words – (units)

Question 5

Explain the design feature of displacement

Answer 5

Ability to refer to past, present, future using language

Question 6

Explain the design feature of productivity

Answer 6

Ability to create new words and to form new sentences (possibly) ones that have never been formed before

Question 7

Explain the design feature of cultural transmission

Answer 7

Language is not hereditary it is a matter of cultural transimission the culture and language are transmitted to an invidiual

Question 8

Explain the design feature of discreteness

Answer 8

Phonemes can bring a change in the meaning of words if we exchange one

Question 9

Define speech-sound. What is the difference between speech sounds and sounds in general?

Answer 9

Speech-sound is a unit of speech having certain articulatory, acoustic and auditory characteristics.
Difference: Sounds are any vibrations in range 20-20000hertz detectable by organs of hearing
Speech-sounds are only those vibrations which constitute a system of elements which can be organized into higher units such as morpehemes and words

Question 10

Explain the notions of “vowel,” “semi-vowel,” and “consonant.” Comment on how vowels, semi-vowels, and consonants are pronounced concerning the obstruction of the airstream.

Answer 10

Vowels – voiced sound produced without any obstruction or narrowing in the vocal tract such that would cause audible friction
Semivowel - /j/ /w/ by definition vowel, behave like consonants
Consonants – speech sounds produced by partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any of the organs of aritculation

Question 11

What is the definition of phoneme? Distinguish between phonemes and allophones.

Answer 11

Phoneme – smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning
Alophone – when a phoneme can be pronounced differently in different words

Question 12

Explain the complementary distribution of allophones.

Answer 12

Clear and dark l can never swap places and they are mutually exclusive

Question 13

Define Phonetics

Answer 13

Branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds and their production transmision reception discription and representation by written symbbols

Question 14

Explain Articulatory Phonetics. What three aspects is it concerned with

Answer 14

Articulatory phonetics is concerned with
The organs of articulation – it names and describes the organs participating in sound production
The production of speech sounds – it describes how sounds are produced from the point of view of the rate of the vocal fold vibration, physical effort, configuration of the articulators and the timing of articulatory movements
The articulatory description and classification of speech sounds – it describes and classifies the sounds from the pov of the rate of vibration of vocal cords, physical effort, configuration of the articulators, timing of articulatory movements

Question 15

What three aspects is acoustic phonetics concerned with?

Answer 15

Acoustic phonetics is concerned with
The acoustic properities of speech sounds – it analyses sound from the pov of fundamental frequency, intensity, wave structure (quality) and duration (quantity)
The transmission of speech sounds – it describes how sounds waves are transmitted between the mouth and the ear
The acoustic description and classification of speech sounds – it describes and classifies the sounds from the pov of their acoustic properties, fundamental frequency, intensity, wave structure (quality) and duration (quantity)

Question 16

What three aspects is auditory phonetics concerned with?

Answer 16

Auditory phonetics is concerned with
The reception and analysis of speech sounds – it describes how the sound is received by the ear, how it is further modulant and processes by the organs of hearing, and how it is analysed in the listener’s brain.
The anatomical and physiological study of the ear – it describes the structure and the function of the ear
The auditory description and classification of speech sounds – it describes and classifies the sounds from the pov of their auditory perception, pitch, loudness, qualitative (auditory) impression and length (quantity)

Question 17

Explain and compare Descriptive Phonetics and Prescriptive Phonetic

Answer 17

Descriptive phonetics – it describes the phonic level of particular language as it is, not how it ought to be
Prescriptive phonetics – It attempts to lay down the rules of correctness and gives the norms of usage. It prescribes a model of correct pronounciation.

Question 18

Explain the notion of Contrastive Phonetics.

Answer 18

It describes and contrasts the phonic levels of at least two languages as existing at a particular point in time, trying to establish the similarities and differences between the analysed languages

Question 19

Explain and compare Synchronic Phonetics and Diachronic Phonetics

Answer 19

Synchronic phonetics – it presents an account of the phonic level of a particular language at some particular point in time.
Diachronic phonetics – It traces the historical development of the phonic level of a particular language and records the changes that have taken place in the pronounciation during the individual periods of time

Question 20

Explain and compare Theoretical Phonetics and Applied Phonetics

Answer 20

Theoretical phonetics – It studies the phonic level of lanugages with the intention of determining its articulatory, acoustic, and auditory features without any regard to possible applications
Applied phonetics – it is concerned with the application of the findings of phonetics to a variety of practical tasks such as foreign language teaching, correction of speech impediments, rhetoric, speech recognition, speech synthesis etc.

Question 21

Explain and compare Subjective and Objective Methods in phonetic research.

Answer 21

Subjective methods – They are based on direct observation carried out by our senses, mainly eyesight and hearing, without using any instruments to objectify our observation
Objective methods – These are methods used mainly in articulatory and acoustic research. We do not rely on our senses but usually use some type of instrument eg. Computer, artificial palate etc.

Question 22

Define Phonology

Answer 22

Phonology is a branch of linguistic concerned with the classification of speech sounds from the functional pov

Question 23

Explain and compare Segmental Phonology and Supra-segmental Phonology

Answer 23

Segmental phonology analyses speech into the minimal functional elements of phonology – phonemes
Suprasegmental phology analyses functional segments higher than phonemes – syllables, tone-units, utterances.

Question 24

What is the definition of transcription?

Answer 24

Special written form of lanugage where one written element represents one spoken element or the abstract representation of the spoken element.

Question 25

What is the difference between the Phonemic and the Allophonic transcription? Focus on the use of brackets.

Answer 25

Phonemic – simple set of symbols where one symbol stands for one phoneme – slant brackets //
Allophonic – complicated set of symbols and diacrticits which can indicated detailed sound values – square brackets []

Question 26

Simple phonemic transcription follows these four principles

Answer 26

1. The transcription reflects a functional pov
2. The minimum possible number of symbols is used
3. Symbols are used without diacriticts
4. Long vowels differ from short vowels only by a length mark

Question 27

Name the four main groups of organs of articulation (articulators)

Answer 27

A) Respiratory organs (lungs, trachea)
B) Phonatory apparatus (vocal folds)
C) Resonantors (pharyngeal, oral and nasal cavities)
D) Modulating organs (mandible, lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, palate, uvula)

Question 28

Describe how we produce egressive and ingressive pulmonic sounds.

Answer 28

Egressive – when the air is forced out of the mouth
Ingressive – breathing air in

Question 29

Name and explain the organs involved in the phonatory apparatus

Answer 29

The larynx is casing forward fomed of ? :P

Question 30

What is the glottis?

Answer 30

Opening between two vocal folds

Question 31

What are the four recognizable states of vocal folds? Give examples of sounds they produce.

Answer 31

a) Wide apat – the glottis is open. This occurs during breathing and when producing voiceless consonants.
b) Loosely together – the glottis is slightly opened. This occurs during the production of the voiceless glottal fricative /h/
c) Lossely together and vibrating – the glottis is slightly opened and the air passing through it causes vibration. This occurs during the production of all voiced sounds
d) Tightly closed – the glottis is firmly closed. When we close the glottis during the speech we produce a glotal stop

Question 32

Explain the notion of voicing (phonation)

Answer 32

Process of passing the airstream through the vocal folds resulting in audible vibration.

Question 33

Outline the three ways the airstream can leave the pharynx

Answer 33

The soft palate may be lowered slightly, and the air escapes both through the nose and the mouth. Sounds produced in this way are called nasalized sounds. French nasalized vowels are produced in this way.
(b) The soft palate is lowered, and the air escapes through the nose only, because there is a complete obstruction made somewhere in the mouth. The sounds produced in this manner are called nasal sounds. English nasal consonants /m/, /n/, and /nasal n/ are produced in this way. (c) The soft palate is held in raised position, and the air escapes only through the mouth. The sounds produced in this manner are called oral sounds. All English sounds, with the exception of nasal consonants, are made in this way.

Question 34

Name two categories of modulating organs. Name the organs included in each category and briefly describe their function

Answer 34

The passive modulating organs (teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate) – many speech sounds are formed by the contact of upper teeth and the tongue – dental
Sounds formed with the toungue and alveolar ridge are called alveolar
Sounds made with the tongue touching hard palate are called palatal
The active modulating organs (tongue, mandible, lips, soft palate, uvula) – mandible can influence opennes of speech sounds, lips pressed together – bilabial sounds, lips touching upper teeth – labiodental
Sounds produced by the tongue touching the velum are called velar, the sounds formed by a vibration of the uvula against the back of the tongue are called uvular

Question 35

The peripheral auditory system is composed of these three parts…name the parts and briefly describe/explain the role of each part.

Answer 35

The outer ear – consists of pinna and meatus, enables us to determine what direction the sound comes from, meatus acts as an accoustic resonator and serves as a passageway channelling sound waves to the eardrum
The middle ear – is a mechanism whose purpose is to transform the sounds that arrive at the outer ear into equivalent mechanical movements it consists of eardrum and the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) middle ear is connected to the pharynx by the eustachian tube
The inner ear – small intricate system of cavities, most important is cochlea – fluid filled organ responsible for converting mechanical movement into neural signals. Basilar membrane transmits the vibrations received from the auditory ossicles to the organ of corti which is a complex structure containing many minute sensory receptors – hair cells

Question 36

Explain “lateralization” in terms of brain functioning

Answer 36

Process of the hemispheres of the brain specializinh in certain functions is known as lateralization