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Psyk 121 - Midterm > Chapter 4. > Flashcards

Chapter 4. Flashcards

1
Q

Cephalocaudal pattern

A

developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top—the head

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2
Q

Differentiation

A

Physical growth and differentiation of features gradually work their way down from top to bottom.

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3
Q

Proximodistal pattern

A

growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities

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4
Q

Ossification

A

The process of hardening of bones

Begins during the last weeks of prenatal development and continues through puberty.

Motor development is dependent on ossification.

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5
Q

Epiphyses

A

the ends of the cartilage structures
that turn into bone

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6
Q

Developing mucels

A

Muscle fibres are virtually all present at birth. Muscles are initially small and have a high ratio of water to muscle

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7
Q

Brain developement

A

The brain is still developing rapidly in infancy; Extensive brain development from birth through infancy.

At birth - brain about 25% of adult weight - By app. 2 yr age - brain about 75% of adult brain weight

At birth, the most developed
parts of the brain include:
1) the medulla 2) the midbrain

medulla and midbrain are more ancient brain structures, they connect to the spinal cord, and are responsible for vital functions, such as:
heartbeat
respiration
attention
sleeping

Neuron - nerve cell/ brain cell that handles information processing. Neurons send electrical and chemical signals, communicating with each other.

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8
Q

Forebrain and cerebral cortex

A

Forebrain - includes the cerebral cortex and several structures beneath.

Cerebral cortex - covers the forebrain like a wrinkled cap

Two halves
(hemispheres)

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9
Q

The frontal Lobe

A

Includes the prefrontal cortex -

important for:
executive functioning skills -
planning
inhibition
Emotion regulation
working memory
Infancy: Brain Development

(in the front)

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10
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

vision (in the back)

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11
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

spatial location
attention
motor contro
(up in the middle)

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12
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

hearing
language processing
memory
Infancy: Brain Development

(close to the brain stem, down in the middle)

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13
Q

Axons

A

the tube shaped structure that carries signals away from the cell

trädstammen från cellen (neuron)

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14
Q

Dendrites

A

carry signals toward it (give the neuron signals, tree-looking branches)

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15
Q

Terminal buttons

A

structures at the ends of the axon that release neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)

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16
Q

Synapse

A

tiny gap between neurons where communication takes place

Expansion of dendritic connections/ synapses facilitates the spreading of neural pathways in infant development

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17
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

Synaptic pruning: The idea that less-active synapses are gradually eliminated.

Normal development involves more synaptic pruning (or elimination of old synapses) than creation of new synapses.

With each cycle of synaptogenesis/pruning the brain becomes more efficient.

Language learning is a striking example of synaptic pruning. Infants up to one year old are primed to learn all languages

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18
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

the brain’s ability to reorganize neural pathways and connections

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19
Q

Neurons change in two
significant ways during the
first years of life

A
  1. Synaptogenesis: Connectivity among neurons increases, creating new neural pathways.
  2. Myelination - begins prenatally and continues, even into adolescence
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20
Q

myelination

A

Myelin gradually covers individual axons and electrically insulates them from one another, improving the conductivity of the nerve

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21
Q

myelin sheath

Reticular- formation

A

fat cells layer encasing many axons; insulating them, helping electrical signals travel faster

it increases
(1) efficiency, and
(2) speed of transmission/ communication along axons:

Quick pain - myelinated axons
Dull pain - non-myelinated axons

Reticular formation: the part of the brain that regulates attention - isn’t fully myelinized until the mid-20’s

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22
Q

Brain development before birth

Brain development after birth

A

genes mainly direct how the brain establishes basic wiring patterns

Early environmental experiences guide the brain’s development: sights, sounds, smells, touches, language and eye contact shape neural connection

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23
Q

Neuroconstructivist view

A

Biological processes and environmental conditions influence the brain’s development.

The brain has plasticity and is context dependent.

Children’s cognitive development is closely connected with brain development.

24
Q

Noninvasive tools that measure brain activity

A

Electroencephalogram (E E G).
* Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (f N R I S).
* Magnetoencephalography (M E G)

25
Q

Why humans sleep

A

Sleep replenishes and rebuilds the brain and body.

Sleep allows for increased production and reduced breakdowns of proteins, and for the clearing out waste in neural tissues.

Sleep is critical for brain plasticity: Increases synaptic connections between neurons

Neonates sleep 80% of the time

Higher quality sleep = Better memory, language, and executive function

Lower quality sleep = increased distractibility and behavioral problems. Sleep deprivation has a negative impact on memory, attention, reasoning, and decision making

26
Q

REM sleep

A

In REM, the eyes flutter
beneath closed lids, while in non-REM sleep, sleep is more quiet; the body is very still.

  • REM sleep is associated
    with dreaming

Half of an infant’s sleep is REM sleep, the most in the life span.

REM sleep may provide added self-stimulation and might promote the brain’s development in infancy.

27
Q

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

A

the sudden and unexpected death of an apparently healthy infant.

SIDS is the leading cause of death between 29 days and one year of age (over 29% of deaths)

SIDS is less common in infants who:
* Are breast fed.
* Sleep in a bedroom with a fan.
* Sleep on their backs.

more likely in infants:
* With abnormal brain stem functioning.
* With heart arrhythmia.
* With sleep apnea and low birth weight.
* Who do not use a pacifier when they go to sleep.
* Whose siblings have died of SIDS.
* Of lower socioeconomic groups.
* Who are passively exposed to cigarette smoke.
* Who sleep on soft bedding

28
Q

Nutrition

A

From birth to 1 year of age, infants nearly triple their weight and increase their length by 50 percent.

Infants should consume approximately 50 calories per day for each pound they weigh.

As motor skills improve, infants’ eating changes:
* From suck-and-swallow to chew-and-swallow
movements.
* Then semisolid, and then complex foods

A varied diet is important. Introduce fruits and vegetables early

29
Q

Breastfeeding

A

better than bottle

Healthier gut bacteria

Healthy size: Breastfeeding contributes to more rapid weight
gain and size

Immune function: Breastfed infants less likely to suffer from common illnesses, and stimulates better immune system functioning. In addition….

Breast feeding outcomes for the child include:
* Fewer gastrointestinal infections.
* Fewer respiratory tract infections.
* Protection against wheezing
* Fewer ear, throat, and sinus infections.
* Reduced infant hospitalizations for various infections.

The breast-fed infant is less
likely to:
* Become overweight or obese in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
* Develop type 1 diabetes in childhood or adult type
* Die from SIDS.

30
Q

Maternal Benefits of Breastfeeding

A

Lower incidence of breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

Reduced rate of type 2 diabetes.

Lower rates of hospitalization.

The mother should NOT breast feed:
* When infected with H I V or other infectious disease.
* If she has active tuberculosis.
* If she is taking any drug.
* When maternal medications or the mother’s health make
breastfeeding impossible

31
Q

Macronutrient malnutrition

A

Diet that contains too few calories

Severe and lengthy malnutrition is detrimental to physical, cognitive, and social development. Attention deficits persist to middle age. Cognitive development in malnourished as infants can benefit from psychosocial interventions. Leading cause of death in children under 5

32
Q

Marasmus (macronurtient malnutrition)

A

Severe calorie deficit
* Extremely small
* Permanent brain
damage

33
Q

Kwashiorkor - malnurtition

A

Diet too low in protein

Chronically ill with large amounts of water retention in belly

34
Q

Micronutrient Malnutrition

A

Deficiency of certain vitamins and/or minerals

The most common form of malnutrition in industrialized countries

Canada is an exception due to food
fortification of the past 50 years

Mortality can be reduced by 23% by
supplying young children with Vitamin A

35
Q

Failure to thrive (FTT)

A

A disorder of infancy and early childhood characterized by variable eating and inadequate gains in weight.

Failure to thrive is a term used to describe a child who seems to be gaining weight or height more slowly than other children of his or her age and sex. A baby who has failed to thrive may seem slow to develop physical skills, such as rolling over, standing, and walking.

  • Slow growth also can lead to delays in mental and social skills.
36
Q

Health and wellness first two years after birth

A

The average baby has seven respiratory illnesses in the first year of life

Infants need frequent medical check-ups

Routine immunization (vaccination) should commence at two months of age and continue through childhood and adolescence

37
Q

Reflexes

A

fixed motor actions that are unlearned and automatic, occur without thinking, and are elicited by a certain stimulus

Reflexes allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment before they have had the opportunity to learn

Absence, or weakness, of reflexes may indicate that the brain is not functioning properly. Helps to know about the newborns brain is functioning properly.

They also engage in non-reflexive behaviour, like kicking to learn about their own bodies.

38
Q

Adaptive reflexes

A

help newborns to survive, such as sucking

39
Q

Primitive reflexes

A

are controlled by primitive parts of the brain; these reflexes disappear by about 6-8 months of age.

sucking, grasing etc.

40
Q

Maturation (motor-skill development)

A

motor skills develop as the
result of the genetics - Gasell argued

41
Q

Dynamic Systems Theory - Motor developement

A

the perspective on motor development that seeks to explain how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving and acting.

  1. Embodied—that is, it involves the status of and changes in the child’s
    body.
  2. Embedded within environmental circumstances - flat? Steep? Uneven?
  3. Enculturated—influenced by social and cultural contexts; how do caregivers encourage movement? What are cultural norms?
  4. Enabling, providing infants and children with increasing independence in exploring and learning about the world.
42
Q

Motor skills are developed by

A
  • Maturation and development of the nervous system.
  • Motivation - The child’s motivation to reach a goal, create new motor behavior (for example, walking).
  • The body’s physical properties (for example, physical strength) and its potential for movement (for example, motor control).

Environmental support for the skill.

43
Q

Perceptual-motor coupling

A

The idea that emerging sensory/ perceptual and motor skills work together to promote development in order that the infant may interact with the environment.

Children perceive in order to
move, and they move in order to
perceive.

Is necessary for the infant to coordinate grasping.

44
Q

Gross motor skills

A

Involve large-muscle activities.

Gross motor skills are dependent of posture. (Dynamic process)

  • Non-locomotor skills -controlling head movements.
  • Locomotor skills – crawling and walking
45
Q

Fine motor skills

A

Involve finely tuned movements

Manipulative skills – use of hands and fingers, such as grasping a toy

2 Types of grasps:
* Palmer grasp: grasping with the whole hand.
* Pincer grip: grasping small objects with thumb and forefinger.

46
Q

Sensation

A

Is the stimulation of the sense organs; occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors

47
Q

Perception

A

Is how our brain builds/constructs meaning; the selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input.

It’s all about what the individual does
with sensory information—how it is interpreted or how different information is combined together - and, very importantly, how it guides action

Perception is designed for action. Ex: put hand up.

48
Q

Ecological view - on perception

A

Perception brings us into contact with the environment so we can interact with and adapt to it.

We sense information from the environment and get feedback from our bodies about how to interact with the world.

49
Q

Affordances

A

the opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform functional activities.

50
Q

Sensation: Audition

A

Auditory experience begins during the last 2 months of pregnancy

Newborns hear nearly as well as adults.

Immediately after birth, infants cannot hear soft sounds quite as well; stimulus must be louder for the newborn to hear.

Changes in hearing
during infancy involve
perception of:
* Loudness;
* Pitch; and
* Localization.

51
Q

Auditory Localization

A

Infants can locate the direction of some sounds at birth

52
Q

Auditory Acuity

A

High-pitched noises need to be loud to be heard.

53
Q

Sensitivity to smell

A

is present before birth

Infants preferred umami (typical of proteins, found in meat and cheese), and sweet flavours (Perhaps due to their similarity to breast milk).

At about 4 months of age, infants begin to prefer
salty tastes, which as newborns they had avoided

Babies have a functioning sense of smell from birth.

54
Q

Infants and taste

A

Infants preferred umami (typical of proteins, found in meat and cheese), and sweet flavours (Perhaps due to their similarity to breast milk).

At about 4 months of age, infants begin to prefer salty tastes, which as newborns they had avoided

55
Q

Touch

A

Best developed of all senses.

Newborns respond to touch.

The neonatal brain is sensitive to gentle social touching.

Babies are especially sensitive to touch on their face, soles of feet, hands, and tummy

Babies feel pain from birth and it can have lasting effect

Psyk 121 - Midterm (4 decks)

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