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Psyk 121 - Midterm > Chapter 2 . > Flashcards

Chapter 2 . Flashcards

1
Q

Natural selection

A

an evolutionary process by which individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring.

Darwin

Some biological and behavioural traits increase their reproductive and survival chances (ie, their fitness)

as a result of these forces, population characteristics may change, as traits that confer a fitness advantage prevail.

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2
Q

Adaptations

A

are inherited characteristics that have increased in a population (through natural selection) because they increased the probability of survival/reproduction at the time when that trait emerged.

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3
Q

Trait

A

(Broadly defined for our purposes) as anything that you can observe about a person

physical traits such as: eye colour, hair colour, height, weight

behavioural traits
such as:
level of shyness, extraversion,
conscientiousness,

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4
Q

Adaptive behavior

A

behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat.

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5
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

use Darwin’s theory of natural selection to understand human behaviour.

helps us to make sense of universal human tendencies, or traits that we share because of our common genetic code.

Mismatch in what we need today

The benefits conferred by evolutionary selection decrease with age.

Natural selection primarily operates during the first half of life and during reproductive viability.

Older adults weaken biologically and need culture-based resources such as cognitive skills, literacy, medical technology, and social
support.

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6
Q

Criticism against evolutionary perspective

A

*Does not adequately value social/environmental factors.
*Relies on after-the-fact explanations.
*Cannot be tested scientifically.

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7
Q

What are genes?

A

units of hereditary information composed of DNA

Help cells to reproduce themselves.

Manufacture the proteins that maintain life.

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8
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid.

Each biological parent donates half his/her set of chromosomes to his/her offspring

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9
Q

How do genes endure and pass along genetic information?

A

Through:
Mitosis - (Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself into two new
cells)

Meiosis - (A specialized type of cell division that results in the formation of eggs and sperm cells)
(or gametes).

Fertilization - the reproductive stage when egg and sperm fuse to create a zygote.

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10
Q

Where does genetic variability come from?

A
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11
Q

D N A

A

complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic code or information.

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12
Q

The Human Genome Project

A

mapped the human genome - the complete genetic content of our cells.

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13
Q

Polygenic traits

A

most human behaviour where heredity plays a role are influenced by many, maybe, maybe even thousands, of pairs of genes

The fact that behavioural traits are polygenic is the reason that mapping the human genome didn’t reveal as much startling/revelatory information as originally anticipated.

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14
Q

Zygote

A

a single cell, formed through fertilization

23 unpaired chromosomes from the egg and 23 unpaired chromosomes from the sperm combine to form 23 matched pairs.

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15
Q

Mutated genes

A

a permanently altered segment of DNA

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16
Q

Susceptibility genes

A

genes that make the individual more vulnerable to specific diseases or accelerated aging

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17
Q

Longevity genes

A

genes that make the individual less vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to an older age.

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18
Q

Genotype

A

A person’s genetic material. Determined at conception and fixed forever. Genotype is inherited

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19
Q

Phenotype

A

How an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable and measurable physical and psychological characteristics.

Phenotype is influenced by environmental factors. Not inherited.

For example, a genetic potential for height may be stunted by lack of access to proper nutrition.

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20
Q

What are chromosomal abnormalities?

A

Gametes are sometimes formed without the typical set of 23 chromosomes, such as occurs in Down syndrome and the sex-linked chromosomal abnormalities

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21
Q

What causes sex-linked abnormalities?

A

Chromosomal abnormalities known as sex-linked involve the presence of an extra X or Y chromosome, or the absence of one X chromosome in females.

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22
Q

What causes gene-linked abnormalities?

A

are produced by harmful genes.

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23
Q

Down syndrome

A

a form of an intellectual disability caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21

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24
Q

Klinefelter syndrome

A

a sex-linked chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.

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25
Q

Fragile X syndrome (F X S)

A

a sex- linked disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks (more frequent in males than females)

26
Q

Turner syndrome

A

a sex-linked disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing or the second X chromosome is partially deleted.

27
Q

XYY syndrome

A

a sex-linked disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome

28
Q

Sickle-cell anemia

A

a genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent.

Red blood cells become
hook-shaped and cannot
carry oxygen properly

29
Q

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

a genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid, called phenylalanine

30
Q

What is the purpose(s) of prenatal diagnostic tests?

A

to indicate whether a fetus is developing normally

31
Q

What male and female factors are associated with infertility? What sorts of reproductive technologies are currently available to assist?

A

Female factors:
* Not ovulating
* abnormal ova
* blocked fallopian tubes
* disease

Male factors:
* low sperm count
* low motility (sperm don’t move adequately)
* blocked passageway
* high oxidative stress.

AHR, IVF and artificial incamination

32
Q

Why have the rates of multiple births increased so dramatically over the last few decades in Canada?

A

Increasing Maternal Age - the number of women over age 35 giving birth for the first time has grown.

  • Increased maternal age leads to an increase in the natural conception of multiple births
  • AND increased maternal age results in the increased use of assisted human reproductive techniques - which increases the rate of multiples
33
Q

What are the developmental impacts of adoption?

A

Outcomes for adopted children.
* Adopted children fare much better than children raised in long-term foster care.

  • Children who are adopted at a very early age are more likely to have positive outcomes.
34
Q

Congenital anomaly

A

Birth defects: an abnormal structure, function, or body metabolism present at birth that results in physical or mental disability, or death

35
Q

Ultrasound sonography

A

at various points in the pregnancy,
and starting at about seven weeks, ultrasound is used to detect potential issues (such as spina bifida), and the baby’s sex

36
Q

FETAL MRI

A

increasingly used for prenatal diagnosis of fetal malformations - often used after ultrasound has detected a potential issue to provide a more detailed and clear image

37
Q

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

A

Usually done in the first trimester between 10-12 weeks. Involves removing and analyzing a tiny piece of placenta

Detects genetic defects and/or chromosomal abnormalities, such as a heart defect or Down syndrome

38
Q

Amniocentesis

A

amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for chromosomal and metabolic disorders.

39
Q

Infertility

A

the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular intercourse without contraception

40
Q

Assisted Human Reproduction (AHR)

A

any activity undertaken for the purpose of facilitating human reproduction

41
Q

In vitro fertilization (IVF):

A

a process in which eggs and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish by experts

Cryopreservation - freezes the multiple embryos created in IVF (In vitro (fertilization) labs, using vitrification protocols to speed the cooling

42
Q

Artificial insemination

A

injects sperm directly into a woman’s uterus

43
Q

What is the focus of the field of behaviour genetics?

A

the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits, development, and behavior.

44
Q

What does ‘degrees of relatedness’ show?

A

It is the probability of sharing genes.

Broadly and generally speaking, degrees of relatedness impacts how much genetic information family members share.

45
Q

How do family studies help to tease apart nature vs nurture?

A

Twin studies have shown that both intelligence and many personality traits are influenced by heredity

46
Q

Heritability:

A

a measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors - is a population concept

heritability is not fate.

47
Q

Adoption study

A

seeks to discover whether behavioral and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents or biological parents

48
Q

How do genes and the environment interact to shape development?

A

The ways that the genes and the environment influence development is complex and there are also complex gene-environment interactions.

  • Our genes may be systematically linked to our environments
  • Passive genotype-environment correlations
  • Evocative genotype-environment correlations
  • Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
49
Q

What is the epigenetic view?

A

How genes is influenced by experiences and the environment to produce individual differences in behavior, cognition, personality, and mental health.

50
Q

How does childhood trauma (ACEs) shape gene expression?

A

ACEs/childhood trauma are associated with negative health outcomes, both mentally and physically

51
Q

Passive genotype-environment
correlations

A

occur because biological parents provide a rearing environment for the child

  • genes and environment are inherited.
52
Q

Evocative genotype-environment correlations

A

occur because a child’s genetically-influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments.

(EX: easy baby easy surrondings)

53
Q

Active (niche-picking) genotype environment correlations

A

occur when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating and suited for their genetically influenced abilities.

As children grow, and become more independent, Active (niche- picking) genotype environment-correlations will play a greater role in development.

54
Q

Passive genotype correlations

A

probably plays a great role in the lives of infants and young children, when their parents control many aspects of their environment

55
Q

Gene × environment (G × E) interaction:

A

the interaction of a specific measured variation in the D N A and a specific measured aspect of the environment

56
Q

Epigenetics

A

is the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

he study of environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed

57
Q

Epigenetic view

A

Development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.

58
Q

Epigenetic marks

A

are triggers (chemical
modifications to DNA) that switch genes on and off

59
Q

methylation

A

involves a chemical modification of DNA

60
Q

Epigenetics changes

A

Psyk 121 - Midterm (4 decks)

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