Chapter 2 .

Question 1

Natural selection

Answer 1

an evolutionary process by which individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring.

Darwin

Some biological and behavioural traits increase their reproductive and survival chances (ie, their fitness)

as a result of these forces, population characteristics may change, as traits that confer a fitness advantage prevail.

Question 2

Adaptations

Answer 2

are inherited characteristics that have increased in a population (through natural selection) because they increased the probability of survival/reproduction at the time when that trait emerged.

Question 3

Trait

Answer 3

(Broadly defined for our purposes) as anything that you can observe about a person

physical traits such as: eye colour, hair colour, height, weight

behavioural traits
such as:
level of shyness, extraversion,
conscientiousness,

Question 4

Adaptive behavior

Answer 4

behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat.

Question 5

Evolutionary psychology

Answer 5

use Darwin’s theory of natural selection to understand human behaviour.

helps us to make sense of universal human tendencies, or traits that we share because of our common genetic code.

Mismatch in what we need today

The benefits conferred by evolutionary selection decrease with age.

Natural selection primarily operates during the first half of life and during reproductive viability.

Older adults weaken biologically and need culture-based resources such as cognitive skills, literacy, medical technology, and social
support.

Question 6

Criticism against evolutionary perspective

Answer 6

*Does not adequately value social/environmental factors.
*Relies on after-the-fact explanations.
*Cannot be tested scientifically.

Question 7

What are genes?

Answer 7

units of hereditary information composed of DNA

Help cells to reproduce themselves.

Manufacture the proteins that maintain life.

Question 8

What are chromosomes?

Answer 8

threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid.

Each biological parent donates half his/her set of chromosomes to his/her offspring

Question 9

How do genes endure and pass along genetic information?

Answer 9

Through:
Mitosis - (Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself into two new
cells)

Meiosis - (A specialized type of cell division that results in the formation of eggs and sperm cells)
(or gametes).

Fertilization - the reproductive stage when egg and sperm fuse to create a zygote.

Question 10

Where does genetic variability come from?

Question 11

D N A

Answer 11

complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic code or information.

Question 12

The Human Genome Project

Answer 12

mapped the human genome - the complete genetic content of our cells.

Question 13

Polygenic traits

Answer 13

most human behaviour where heredity plays a role are influenced by many, maybe, maybe even thousands, of pairs of genes

The fact that behavioural traits are polygenic is the reason that mapping the human genome didn’t reveal as much startling/revelatory information as originally anticipated.

Question 14

Zygote

Answer 14

a single cell, formed through fertilization

23 unpaired chromosomes from the egg and 23 unpaired chromosomes from the sperm combine to form 23 matched pairs.

Question 15

Mutated genes

Answer 15

a permanently altered segment of DNA

Question 16

Susceptibility genes

Answer 16

genes that make the individual more vulnerable to specific diseases or accelerated aging

Question 17

Longevity genes

Answer 17

genes that make the individual less vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to an older age.

Question 18

Genotype

Answer 18

A person’s genetic material. Determined at conception and fixed forever. Genotype is inherited

Question 19

Phenotype

Answer 19

How an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable and measurable physical and psychological characteristics.

Phenotype is influenced by environmental factors. Not inherited.

For example, a genetic potential for height may be stunted by lack of access to proper nutrition.

Question 20

What are chromosomal abnormalities?

Answer 20

Gametes are sometimes formed without the typical set of 23 chromosomes, such as occurs in Down syndrome and the sex-linked chromosomal abnormalities

Question 21

What causes sex-linked abnormalities?

Answer 21

Chromosomal abnormalities known as sex-linked involve the presence of an extra X or Y chromosome, or the absence of one X chromosome in females.

Question 22

What causes gene-linked abnormalities?

Answer 22

are produced by harmful genes.

Question 23

Down syndrome

Answer 23

a form of an intellectual disability caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21

Question 24

Klinefelter syndrome

Answer 24

a sex-linked chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.

Question 25

Fragile X syndrome (F X S)

Answer 25

a sex- linked disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks (more frequent in males than females)

Question 26

Turner syndrome

Answer 26

a sex-linked disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing or the second X chromosome is partially deleted.

Question 27

XYY syndrome

Answer 27

a sex-linked disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome

Question 28

Sickle-cell anemia

Answer 28

a genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent. Red blood cells become hook-shaped and cannot carry oxygen properly

Question 29

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Answer 29

a genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid, called phenylalanine

Question 30

What is the purpose(s) of prenatal diagnostic tests?

Answer 30

to indicate whether a fetus is developing normally

Question 31

What male and female factors are associated with infertility? What sorts of reproductive technologies are currently available to assist?

Answer 31

Female factors: * Not ovulating * abnormal ova * blocked fallopian tubes * disease Male factors: * low sperm count * low motility (sperm don’t move adequately) * blocked passageway * high oxidative stress. AHR, IVF and artificial incamination

Question 32

Why have the rates of multiple births increased so dramatically over the last few decades in Canada?

Answer 32

Increasing Maternal Age - the number of women over age 35 giving birth for the first time has grown. * Increased maternal age leads to an increase in the natural conception of multiple births * AND increased maternal age results in the increased use of assisted human reproductive techniques - which increases the rate of multiples

Question 33

What are the developmental impacts of adoption?

Answer 33

Outcomes for adopted children. * Adopted children fare much better than children raised in long-term foster care. * Children who are adopted at a very early age are more likely to have positive outcomes.

Question 34

Congenital anomaly

Answer 34

Birth defects: an abnormal structure, function, or body metabolism present at birth that results in physical or mental disability, or death

Question 35

Ultrasound sonography

Answer 35

at various points in the pregnancy, and starting at about seven weeks, ultrasound is used to detect potential issues (such as spina bifida), and the baby’s sex

Question 36

FETAL MRI

Answer 36

increasingly used for prenatal diagnosis of fetal malformations - often used after ultrasound has detected a potential issue to provide a more detailed and clear image

Question 37

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

Answer 37

Usually done in the first trimester between 10-12 weeks. Involves removing and analyzing a tiny piece of placenta Detects genetic defects and/or chromosomal abnormalities, such as a heart defect or Down syndrome

Question 38

Amniocentesis

Answer 38

amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe and tested for chromosomal and metabolic disorders.

Question 39

Infertility

Answer 39

the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular intercourse without contraception

Question 40

Assisted Human Reproduction (AHR)

Answer 40

any activity undertaken for the purpose of facilitating human reproduction

Question 41

In vitro fertilization (IVF):

Answer 41

a process in which eggs and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish by experts Cryopreservation - freezes the multiple embryos created in IVF (In vitro (fertilization) labs, using vitrification protocols to speed the cooling

Question 42

Artificial insemination

Answer 42

injects sperm directly into a woman’s uterus

Question 43

What is the focus of the field of behaviour genetics?

Answer 43

the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits, development, and behavior.

Question 44

What does ‘degrees of relatedness’ show?

Answer 44

It is the probability of sharing genes. Broadly and generally speaking, degrees of relatedness impacts how much genetic information family members share.

Question 45

How do family studies help to tease apart nature vs nurture?

Answer 45

Twin studies have shown that both intelligence and many personality traits are influenced by heredity

Question 46

Heritability:

Answer 46

a measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors - is a population concept heritability is not fate.

Question 47

Adoption study

Answer 47

seeks to discover whether behavioral and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents or biological parents

Question 48

How do genes and the environment interact to shape development?

Answer 48

The ways that the genes and the environment influence development is complex and there are also complex gene-environment interactions. * Our genes may be systematically linked to our environments * Passive genotype-environment correlations * Evocative genotype-environment correlations * Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations

Question 49

What is the epigenetic view?

Answer 49

How genes is influenced by experiences and the environment to produce individual differences in behavior, cognition, personality, and mental health.

Question 50

How does childhood trauma (ACEs) shape gene expression?

Answer 50

ACEs/childhood trauma are associated with negative health outcomes, both mentally and physically

Question 51

Passive genotype-environment correlations

Answer 51

occur because biological parents provide a rearing environment for the child - genes and environment are inherited.

Question 52

Evocative genotype-environment correlations

Answer 52

occur because a child’s genetically-influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. (EX: easy baby easy surrondings)

Question 53

Active (niche-picking) genotype environment correlations

Answer 53

occur when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating and suited for their genetically influenced abilities. As children grow, and become more independent, Active (niche- picking) genotype environment-correlations will play a greater role in development.

Question 54

Passive genotype correlations

Answer 54

probably plays a great role in the lives of infants and young children, when their parents control many aspects of their environment

Question 55

Gene × environment (G × E) interaction:

Answer 55

the interaction of a specific measured variation in the D N A and a specific measured aspect of the environment

Question 56

Epigenetics

Answer 56

is the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change he study of environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed

Question 57

Epigenetic view

Answer 57

Development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.

Question 58

Epigenetic marks

Answer 58

are triggers (chemical modifications to DNA) that switch genes on and off

Question 59

methylation

Answer 59

involves a chemical modification of DNA

Question 60

Epigenetics changes