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Biology II: Exam 1 > Chapter 34 Part B: Respiratory System > Flashcards

Chapter 34 Part B: Respiratory System Flashcards

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1
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

• Cellular metabolism requires that…

A

– O2 be delivered to the tissues

– CO2 be removed

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2
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

• Major duties here fall to two systems

A

– Circulatory system
• Connects cells deep in the body with cells exposed to the environment
• Essentially reduces effective distance over which diffusion must occur
– Respiratory system
• Involves gas exchange between the surface of an organism (e.g., gills or lungs) and its environment

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3
Q

The circulatory system essentially reduce _____ distance over which diffusion must occur

A

Effective

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4
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

• At their simplest, these two systems aid in the process of passive diffusion

A

– O2 is at higher partial pressure in the environment and so tends to diffuse into the animal
– CO2 collects in the tissues and so tends to diffuse out

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5
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

A

• At their simplest, these two systems aid in the process of passive diffusion
– O2 is at higher partial pressure in the environment and so tends to diffuse into the animal
– CO2 collects in the tissues and so tends to diffuse out
• Diffusion BY ITSELF is INadequate in large, multicellular organisms
– Simple spherical aquatic organism could be no larger than 0.5 mm RADIUS
• If larger, core tissues would not receive adequate O2 even if surrounding water was saturated with oxygen
– Would require several years for O2 to DIFFUSE from lungs to tip of fingers through tissue
• Thus circulatory and respiratory systems aid passive diffusion, and speed O2 delivery and CO2 removal.

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6
Q

O2 tends to diffuse __1__ the animal, while CO2 tends to diffuse __2__

A
  1. Into

2. Out

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7
Q

True or False: Diffusion by itself is adequate in large, multicellular organisms

A

False, Diffusion by itself is inadequate in large, multicellular organisms

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8
Q

Thus circulatory and respiratory systems aid ______ diffusion, and speed O2 delivery and CO2 removal.

A

Passive

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9
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

• Evolutionary modifications have addressed 4 factors which limit rate of diffusion (Fick’s Law of Diffusion):

A

– R: Rate of Diffusion (best for organism to maximize this)
– D: Diffusion Constant (increase)
• Affected by solvent & molecule diffusing
• Can’t change this: O2 & CO2, water
– A: Surface area (increase)
– ∆p: Concentration gradient (increase; i.e., keep steep)
• countercurrent & cross current, sequester O2 in RBC’s, and CO2 as bicarbonate ion
– d: Distance (reduce)

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10
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Equation:

A

R = D × A (Δp/d)

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11
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- R = ________

A

Rate of Diffusion (best for organism to maximize this)

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12
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- D =_________

A

Diffusion Constant (increase)

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13
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- A =_________

A

Surface area (increase)

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14
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- Δp =________

A 
Concentration gradient (increase; i.e., keep steep)
   • countercurrent & cross current, sequester O2 in RBC’s, and CO2 as bicarbonate ion
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15
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- d = _________

A

Distance (reduce)

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16
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

• Respiratory systems also have had to deal with differences in physical properties of water and air.

A

• e.g., water is more dense and viscous than air
– 800X more dense & 50X more viscous
– So, more expensive to pump water over gills than to pump air (cost is 20% of available energy vs. 1-2%)
– Water therefore is more buoyant than air and helps support gills
• Gills are not self-supporting out of water, where they tend to collapse together and fail as gas exchangers
• Lungs are reinforced structurally, and of course work better in air

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17
Q

Water is 1 times more dense & 2 times more viscous

A
  1. 800X more dense

2. 50X more viscous

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18
Q

Vertebrate Respiratory Systems

• e.g., O2 typically is MUCH LESS available in water than in air

A

– at 5 degrees C, ~1/20: [saturated water ~9 ml/L O2, air 209 ml/L.]
– at 25 degrees C, ~1/35 [saturated water ~6 ml/L O2, air 209 ml/L.]
– O2 diffusion in air 10,000X faster than in water
– But #1: O2 availability DECREASES as water WARMS!
– But #2: decaying organic matter in water REMOVES O2
• Hypoxia: low O2; Anoxia: no O2
• Summer fish kills in Lake Erie and Cuyahoga River, worsened by “blooms” brought on by nutrient loads
– So, supplemental respiratory organs tend to occur in aquatic critters, rather than in purely terrestrial ones
• Supplemental lungs in fish, urinary bladder in turtles, loose skin in some frogs, among others

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19
Q

O2 availability _____ (increases/decreases) as water warms

A

Decreases

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20
Q

Decaying organic matter in water _______ O2

A

Removes

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21
Q

Vertebrate Ventilation Mechanisms

• Water ventilation – the “Dual Pump”

A

– Buccal & opercular pumps, UNIDIRECTIONAL flow of water

– Can achieve NEARLY CONTINUOUS water flow over gills

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22
Q

Vertebrate Ventilation Mechanisms

• Air ventilation – the “Pulse Pump”

A

– Air-breathing fish and amphibians

– Air is forced into the lungs by compression of buccal cavity

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23
Q

Vertebrate Ventilation Mechanisms

• Air ventilation – the “Aspiration Pump”

A

– Air is “sucked into” the lungs by a low pressure created around the lungs
– In-out flow is described as “tidal”
– Buccal cavity no longer part of pump
– Found in amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals)

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24
Q

Dual pump (buccal & opercular): flow of water is ___1___ and nearly ___2___

A
  1. Unidirectional

2. Continuous

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25
Q

__1__ and __2__ cavities form the 2 pumps of the “dual pump” system

A
  1. Buccal

2. Opercular

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26
Q

Countercurrent flow helps to maintain a steep ______ gradient

A

Concentration

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27
Q

View diagram on the “pulse pump”

A

Good to look through all diagrams on slides

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28
Q

Pulse pump in an amphibian (as in air- breathing fish ancestors) – how to use mouth to ___ and breathe at same time?

A

Eat

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29
Q

Structure and function of aspiration pump in mammals:

A

• “Box” housing lungs consists of rib cage & diaphragm
• Diaphragm
– Forms posterior wall of box
– Dome-shaped sheet of muscle, with dome bulging up into thoracic cavity
• Cavity housing lungs in mammals is pleural cavity, a compartment of coelom
• Rib cage muscles
– External & internal obliques, run between ribs.
• Part of what you eat when you have “ribs”
– Various other muscles insert on rib cage but originate elsewhere (see diagram – don’t learn names)

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30
Q

The ______ is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle that forms the posterior wall of “box” housing lungs. Also separates the pleural cavity from the abdominal cavity and bulges into the thoracic cavity

A

Diaphragm

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31
Q

The _____ cavity houses the lungs in mammals

A

Pleural

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32
Q

Rib cage muscles that run between the ribs are the ___1___ & ___2___

A
  1. External

2. Internal

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33
Q

Ventilation (in mammals)

• Inhalation – rib cage expands

A

– External obliques contract, rib cage lifts and expands
• Other muscles may contribute during higher activity (see diagram)
– Diaphragm contracts, flattening and pulling down
– Enlarging rib cage expands the pleural cavity, decreasing pressure therein, and drawing air down the airways and into lungs

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34
Q

Ventilation (in mammals)

• Active exhalation

A

– Internal intercostals contract, pulling rib cage down
• Other muscles may contribute (see diagram)
– Diaphragm relaxes, rebounds to “domed” position
– Decreasing rib cage contracts pleural cavity, forcing air out of lungs and airways

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35
Q

Ventilation (in mammals)

• Passive exhalation

A

– Gravity and elastic recoil suffice to contract rib cage
– Occurs at rest
– So – normally we have active inhalation and passive exhalation

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36
Q

Ventilation (mammals)

• Quadrupedal animals

A

– Locomotion brings additional forces to ventilation
• Affect shape of rib cage
• Movement of viscera (e.g., viscera serve as piston, changing volume of pleural cavity)
• Rhythmic movements during locomotion related to limb movement
• So – breathing patterns may be in synch with gait

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37
Q

Aspiration pump:

A
  • pump is rib cage & diaphragm
  • bidirectional or “tidal”
  • air is “sucked in”, not forced by buccal pressure
  • found in amniotes (i.e., fully terrestrial taxa)
  • the “swing” of intrapleural pressure is ~4 mm Hg (i.e., -2 to - 6); normal atmospheric pressure is ~760 mm Hg
38
Q

During _______ the external obliques contracts as does the diaphragm which flattens and pulls down

A

Inhalation, the rib cage then lifts and expands

39
Q

During ______ _______ the internal intercostals contract and the diaphragm relaxes

A

Active exhalation

40
Q

During ______ _______ gravity and elastic recoil suffice to contract rib cage which occurs at rest

A

Passive exhalation

41
Q

True or False: Normally we have both active and passive exhalation

A

True

42
Q

In quadrupedal animals _______ brings additional forces to ventilation

A

Locomotion

- Breathing patterns may be in synch with gait (pattern of movement of the limbs of animals)

43
Q

In the “aspiration pump” the pump is the ___1___ & __2__

A
  1. Rib cage

2. Diaphragm

44
Q

The “aspiration pump” is ___1___

A
  1. Bidirectional or “tidal”
45
Q

In the “aspiration pump” the “swing” of intrapleural pressure is ~__1__ mm Hg (i.e., -__2__ to - __3__); normal atmospheric pressure is ~760 mm Hg

A
  1. ~4 mm Hg
  2. -2
  3. -6
46
Q

Airway and lung structure

- Part 1

A

• Air enters via an external naris (pleural nares) into one of the paired (left/right) nasal cavities
• Each nasal cavity holds 3 “scrolled” bones called CONCHAE (“kahn – key”, singular is concha) or turbinate bones
– Increase surface area: facilitate humidification, warming, and cleaning of inspired air
• Nasal cavities lead to PHARYNX where airway and digestive tract “cross”
• GLOTTIS is opening into larynx at top of trachea; epiglottis helps block food from entering airway

47
Q

Airway and lung structure

- Part 2

A

• Below larynx is TRACHEA a tube supported by C- shaped cartilaginous “rings” (does “hyaline” ring a bell?)
• Trachea travels down neck, enters rib cage, splits into 2 PRIMARY BRONCHI
• Each primary bronchus splits into SECONDARY BRONCHI, etc.
– Overall, about 23 such branchings, giving rise to the “respiratory tree”
• BRONCHIOLES: passages < 1 mm diameter
• ALVEOLAR DUCTS: walls consist almost entirely of alveoli
• Alveolar ducts lead to ALVEOLAR SACS
• ALVEOLUS: blind-ended sac where gas exchange occurs

48
Q

Airway and lung structure

• Alveolus (plural alveoli): microscopic, blind-ended, sac where gas exchange occurs

A

– ~ 300 million in each human lung
• Alveolar diameter ~250 μm (varies with inhalation/exhalation)
• wall thicknesses of ~ 0.2 μm
– Total alveolar surface area ~ 80 m2 (~ 43 X body surface area)
– Distance between air in alveolus and blood in capillary is ~ 0.5–1.0 μm; compare with
• red blood cell at 7-8 μm
• capillaries at ~ 8 μm
• “typical” eukaryotic cell at 10-100 μm

49
Q

3 nasal conchae ______ (increase/decrease) surface area: facilitate humidification, warming, and cleaning of air

A

Increase

50
Q

Nasal cavities lead to ______ where airway and digestive tract “cross”

A

Pharynx

51
Q

___1___ is opening into larynx at top of trachea; ___2___ helps block food from entering airway

A
  1. Glottis

2. Epiglottis

52
Q

Below larynx is ______, a tube supported by C- shaped cartilaginous “rings” (does “hyaline” ring a bell?)

A

Trachea

53
Q

Trachea travels down neck, enters rib cage, splits into 2 ______ ______

A

Primary bronchi

54
Q

Each primary bronchus splits into _______ ______, etc.

A

Secondary bronchi

55
Q

Overall, about ___ such branchings, giving rise to the “respiratory tree”

A

23

56
Q

_________: passages < 1 mm diameter

A

Bronchioles

57
Q

_______ _____: walls consist almost entirely of alveoli

A

Alveolar ducts

58
Q

Alveolar ducts lead to ______ ______

A

Alveolar sacs

59
Q

_______: blind-ended sac where gas exchange occurs

A

Alveolus

60
Q

Airway and lung structure

• Anatomical dead space

A

– Typical tidal volume is ~ 500 cc
– Volume of airways is ~ 150 cc
• This air NOT involved in gas exchange because never gets to alveoli, hence “anatomical dead space”

61
Q

There are ~____ million alveolus in a human

A

~600 million

62
Q

Alveolar diameter is ~__1__ (varies with inhalation/exhalation) and the wall thickness is ~__2__

A
  1. ~250 μm

2. ~0.2 μm

63
Q

Total alveolar surface area ~ __1__ m2 (~ __2__ times body surface area)

A
  1. ~ 80 m2

2. ~ 43 X

64
Q

Distance between air in alveolus and blood in capillary is ~ _____; compare with
• red blood cell at 7-8 μm
• capillaries at ~ 8 μm
• “typical” eukaryotic cell at 10-100 μm

A

~ 0.5–1.0 μm

65
Q

Typical tidal volume is ~ __1__ and volume of airways is ~ __2__

A
  1. 500 cc (1/2 liter)

2. 150 cc

66
Q

__1__ of air is involved in gas exchange because it gets to the alveoli and __2__ of air occupies “anatomical dead space”

A
  1. 350 cc (70%)

2. 150 cc (30%)

67
Q

On average, red blood cell spends about how much time traversing the alveolus?

A

3/4 sec

68
Q

What keeps lungs inflated?

• Forces tending to collapse lungs

A

– Surface tension of water on inner alveolar surface

– Natural elasticity of lungs

69
Q

What keeps lungs inflated?

• Forces opposing collapse

A

– Surfactants weaken surface tension of water on alveolar surface
• Secreted by cells lining alveolus
– Adhesion of water on inner chest wall and outer surface of lungs
• Likened to moisture between two microscope slides
– Low pressure in pleural cavity (2-4 mm Hg below atmospheric)
• Hole in chest wall or in lungs destroys this, causes collapse
– Called pneumothorax
• Excess water in pleural cavity weakens this, can cause collapse.
– Fluid is “pumped out” continuously into lymphatic vessels
– Low blood pressure in pulmonary capillaries swings balance to colloid osmotic pressure so always pulling water out

70
Q

True or False: Surface tension of water on inner alveolar surface is a force that tends to collapse the lungs

A

True

71
Q

The natural _______ of lungs tends to collapse the lungs

A

Elasticity

72
Q

________ weaken surface tension of water on alveolar surface to help oppose collapse

A

Surfactants

73
Q

True or False: Adhesion of water on inner chest wall and outer surface of lungs tends to collapse lungs

A

False, Adhesion of water on inner chest wall and outer surface of lungs tends to oppose collapsing of lungs

74
Q

The ____ (high/low) pressure in pleural cavity opposes collapsing of lungs

A

Low (2-4 mm Hg below atmospheric)

75
Q

Gas transport

• Oxygen

A

• Blood leaving lungs has nearly as much O2 dissolved in plasma as possible, but this isn’t much
– O2 not very soluble in water
– Only about 3 ml of O2 dissolved per liter blood, but blood carries ~ 200 ml O2 per liter (so ~1.5% vs. 98.5%)
– Most of the rest bound to iron atom of heme group of hemoglobin inside red blood cells
– Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curves describe release of O2 in the tissues
• Decreasing pH causes hemoglobin to release more O2 (Bohr effect) – to what effect ??
• Increasing temperature has similar effect – to what effect ??

76
Q

True or False: O2 is very soluble in water

A

False, O2 not very soluble in water

77
Q

Only about ____ ml of O2 dissolved per liter blood, but blood carries ~ 200 ml O2 per liter (so ~1.5% vs. 98.5%)

A

3 ml

78
Q

Most of the rest of oxygen that doesn’t dissolve in blood is bound to iron atom of __1__ (aa/heme) group of hemoglobin inside __2__ (red/white) blood cells

A
  1. Heme

2. Red

79
Q

___________ dissociation curves describe release of O2 in the tissues

A

Oxyhemoglobin

80
Q

Bohr effect: Decreasing ____ (pH/temperature) causes hemoglobin to release more O2

A

pH

81
Q

Increasing ______ (pH/temperature) causes hemoglobin to release more O2

A

Temperature

82
Q

“For mothers to deliver oxygen to a fetus, it is necessary for the fetal hemoglobin to extract oxygen from the maternal oxygenated hemoglobin across the placenta. This requires the fetal hemoglobin to have a ______ (higher/lower) oxygen affinity than that of the maternal carrier.”

A

Higher

83
Q

Gas transport

• Carbon dioxide

A
  • ~ 8% dissolved in plasma; 20% bound to hemoglobin (but to aa of globin, not to heme groups); 72% as bicarbonate in solution
  • In tissues, CO2 diffuses into red blood cells
  • Bicarbonate formed there then diffuses out of red blood cell into plasma
  • Reverse reaction occurs in lungs
  • See figure
84
Q

~ ___% of CO2 is dissolved in plasma

A

8%

85
Q

1% of CO2 is bound to the __2__ site of hemoglobin

A
  1. 20%

2. aa

86
Q

True or False: When CO2 binds to hemoglobin it inhibits the binding of O2.

A

False, when CO2 binds to hemoglobin it DOES NOT inhibit the binding of O2.

  • CO2 binds to aa of globin
  • O2 binds to heme groups
87
Q

Control of breathing

A

• Breathing normally involuntary but can come under voluntary control
• Control centers are in reticular formation of medulla and pons
– Generate rhythmical signals to stimulate normal inhalation (normal exhalation is passive)
– Precise source of rhythmicity is not clear, but it is medulla
– Chemoreceptors in medulla, and major blood vessels of neck in neck & near heart respond to CO2 levels in blood, and pH of blood (and in cerebrospinal fluid)
• Send signals to control centers, which increase breathing rate
• Hyperventilating can blow off so much CO2 that stimulus to breathe is delayed; result can be that 02 levels drop enough to cause blackout. In swimmers can cause drowning.

88
Q

Breathing is normally ___1____ (voluntary/involuntary), but can come under ___2____ (voluntary/involuntary) control

A
  1. Involuntary

2. Voluntary

89
Q

Control centers for breathing are in reticular formation of __1__ and __2__

A
  1. Medulla

2. Pons

90
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- If the distance is decreased, the rate of diffusion will ________ (increase/decrease)

A

Increase

91
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- If the concentration gradient is increased, the rate of diffusion will _________ (increase/decrease)

A

Increase

92
Q

Fick’s Law of Diffusion Factors:

- If the surface area is decreased, the rate of diffusion will ________ (increase/decrease)

A

Decrease

Biology II: Exam 1 (4 decks)

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