Chapter 3 (Social Beliefs And Judgement) Flashcards
Functions automatically and out of
awareness. Often called “intuition” and “gut-feeling”
System 1
The system that requires our conscious
attention and effort.
System 2
The awakening or activating of
certain associations.
Priming
They explain, “Most of a person’s
everyday life is determined not by their conscious intentions and deliberate
choices but by mental processes that are put into motion by features of
the environment and that operate outside of conscious awareness and
guidance.”
John Bargh and Tanya Chartrand (1999)
Our social cognition is ________. The
brain systems that process our bodily
sensations communicate with the brain
systems responsible for our social
thinking.
Embodied cognition
_____ is immediately knowing something
without reasoning or analysis.
Intuition
Studies of our unconscious information
processing confirm our limited access to
what’s going on in our minds.
Intuitive Judgements
We know more than we know we know.
Intuitive Judgements
Often referred to as “gut feelings,
”
_________ tends to arise holistically and
quickly, without awareness of the
underlying mental processing of
information.
Intuition
It is not magical but rather a faculty in
which hunches are generated by the
unconscious mind rapidly sifting through
past experience and cumulative
knowledge.
Intuition
Our ________ is partly automatic (impulsive,
effortless, without awareness) and partly
controlled (reflective, deliberate, and
conscious)
thinking
_________, intuitive thinking occurs not “onscreen”
but offscreen, out of sight, where reason does not
go.
Automatic
Types of Automatic Thinking
- Schema
- Emotional Reaction
- Expertise
- Snap Judgments
Mental concepts or templates that
intuitively guide our perceptions
and interpretations.
Schema
The range of possible responses individuals
may have to a situation, varying from
expressionless reactions to outward displays
of emotions such as shaking, frowning, and
expressing anger through words.
Emotional Reactions
Skills achieved from activities such as
work, hobbies and sports begin as a
controlled deliberate process and
gradually become automatic and
intuitive.
Expertise
Those made quickly and based on
only a few bits of information and
preconceived notions.
We can guess about something with
just a fraction of a second glance.
Snap Judgements
Having lost a portion of the visual cortex to surgery or stroke, people may be
functionally blind in part of their field of vision.
Blindsight
What system you usually use in some things such as facts, names, and past experiences, which we remember explicitly?
System 2
What system we usually use in skills and conditioned dispositions, which we remember implicitly without consciously knowing or declaring that we know.
System 1
Limits of our Intuition
- “a general consensus
that the unconscious may not be as smart as
previously believed”
-susceptible to error-prone hindsight
judgement.
-have a capacity for illusion—for
perceptual misinterpretations, fantasies, and
constructed beliefs.
Tendency of people to overestimate their knowledge, abilities, or the accuracy of their
judgments.
Over Confidence
Occurs when people are more certain about something than they should be
Over Confidence
In Over Confidence, what bias provides overly narrow ranges
overprecision
Who noted “Incompetence feeds overconfidence- It takes competence to recognize competence”
Justin Kruger and David Dunning (1999)
We are eager to verify our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove them, a phenomenon.
CONFIRMATION BIAS
REMEDIES FOR OVERCONFIDENCE
- Wary of other people’s dogmatic statements.
- Prompt feedback
- Consider Disconfirming Information
It is simple, efficient thinking strategies. It enables us to make routine decisions with minimal effort (Shah & Oppenheimer, 2008).
Heuristics
The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that
someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling
(representing) a typical member.
The Representativeness Heuristic
It helps us make judgments about the likelihood or frequency of events
based on how easily examples come to mind.
The Availability Heuristic
It shows that our fears are often driven by
emotionally charged and vivid events, not by logical calculations of
actual risk.
Probability neglect
This concept explains why people worry about events that are highly
improbable but vividly depicted.
Probability Neglect
Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that
might have happened, but didn’t.
Counterfactual thinking
It influences emotions such as regret, relief,frustration,
and luck.
Counterfactual thinking
It refers to the cognitive process where people perceive connections or patterns between events, variables, or ideas when none actually exist.
Illusory thinking
This thinking often leads to illusory correlations
Illusory thinking
where we believe two things are related because they happen together in a few instances, even though they occur randomly or coincidentally
Illusory Correlations
In Illusory Correlation in Gambling.
In this illusion, people often behave as if they can
control or predict chance events, even when outcomes are random.
Illusion of Control
It is a statistical
phenomenon where extreme outcomes are followed by
outcomes that are closer to the average.
Regression toward the average
Our _______ infuse our _______
Our moods infuse our judgments
Mood and Judgments
- More trusting, loving, and responsive. Positive
evaluations and easier decisions.
Happy Mood
Mood and Judgments
- More self-focused and brooding. Motivates intense, detail-oriented thinking.
Unhappy Mood
This research explores how mood affects memory
and judgments. People’s perceptions of past events and themselves change depending on their current mood.
Joseph Forgas’s Studies
Our __________ guide how we perceive and interpret
information.
preconceptions
This is where new, misleading information gets
incorporated into the memory
Misinformation effect
Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.
BELIEF PERSEVERANCE
________ can grow their own legs and survive discrediting.
Beliefs
People whose attitudes have changed often insist that they have
always felt as much as they now feel.
RECONSTRUCTING OUR PAST ATTITUDE
Our memories are not exact copies of experiences that remain on
deposit in a memory bank. Rather, we construct memories at the
time of withdrawal.
CONSTRUCTING MEMORIES OF OURSELVES AND OUR
WORLDS
We all have ‘totalitarian egos’ that revise the past to suit our present
views.
RECONSTRUCTING OUR PAST BEHAVIOR
- mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong
source, incorrectly assign the cause
of someone’s behavior, often leading
to misunderstandings
Misattribution
We endlessly analyze and discuss
why things happen as they do,
especially when we experience
something negative or unexpected
Attributing Causality
The theory of
how people explain others’ behavior
—for example, by attributing it either
to internal dispositions (enduring
traits, motives, and attitudes) or to
external situations
Attribution theory
Pioneer of Attribution theory
Fritz
Heider (1958)
Attributing
behavior to the person’s disposition
and traits.
Dispositional attribution
Attributing
behavior to the environment.
Situational attribution
An effortless, automatic inference of a
trait after exposure to someone’s behavior.
Spontaneous Trait Inference
The tendency
for observers to underestimate situational
influences and overestimate dispositional
influences upon others
Fundamental Attribution Error
Attribution theorists have pointed
out that we observe others from a
different perspective than we
observe ourselves.
Perspective and Situational
Awareness
Cultures also influence attribution
error
Cultural Differences
WHY WE STUDY ATTRIBUTION
ERRORS
- It explains some foibles and fallacies in our social thinking.
- For focusing on thinking biases such as the fundamental attribution error is humanitarian.
- For focusing on biases is that we are mostly unaware of them and can benefit from greater awareness.
How do our Social Beliefs Matter?
They influence how
we feel and act, and by doing
so may help generate their
own reality.
Research participants
sometimes live up to what they
believe experimenters expect
of them.
Experimenter Bias
Beliefs that lead to their own
fulfillment.
When our ideas lead us to act
in ways that produce their
apparent confirmation
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
Studies of experimenter bias and teacher
expectations show that an erroneous
belief that certain people are unusually
capable (or incapable) can lead teachers
and researchers to give those people
special treatment.
Teacher Expectations and Student Performance
This may elicit superior
(or inferior) performance and, therefore,
seem to confirm an assumption that is
actually false.
Teacher Expectations and Student Performance
Sometimes _________ color our
personal relationships
self-fulfilling prophecies
If this once formed, erroneous beliefs about
the social world can induce others to
confirm those beliefs.
Behavioral Confirmation
It occurs as
people interact with partners holding
mistaken beliefs.
Behavioral confirmation
_______ one thought, even without
awareness, can influence another
thought, or even an action.
Priming
where our default
reaction is to look for information consistent with
our presupposition.
System 1 snap judgment
helps explain why our selfimages are so remarkably stable
Confirmation bias
This can
distort our perception of reality, leading us to focus on highly improbable but emotionally charged events, while neglecting more
common, but less attention-grabbing risks.
Availability Heuristics
