Chapter 3 - Skill acquisition and psychology Flashcards
Skill
A skill is a learned and practiced ability that brings about the result that you want to achieve with maximum certainty and efficiency.
ability
An ability is the qualities and characteristics a person is born with that allows a person to learn or acquire skills. E.g. speed, agility, coordination, flexibility, balance and reaction time.
factors affecting variations in skill level
age and maturity, culture, motivation, anxiety, arousal conditions, facilities, environment and teaching and coaching
age and maturity (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Age and maturity: how young a person is can affect how good they become. Starting younger provides more time to become and expert.
culture (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Culture: background can impact upon the skills you learn. A person with the ability to play striking sports is likely to play baseball in USA, but cricket in India.
motivation (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Motivation: this will influence the skills you choose and how well you master them/ a desire to succeed will encourage you to practice and seek new challenges.
anxiety (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Anxiety: if you see the skill as difficult it may stop you from improving. The coach must break the skill down to help you motivate.
arousal conditions (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Arousal conditions: someone who is calm and enjoys low arousal may perform well in shooting or archery which require fine motor skills. People with high arousal levels may prefer football or boxing which require more grows motor skills.
facilities (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Facilities: the kinds of facilities that are available and accessible will impact on the sports that are offered.
environment (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Environment: where you live will affect your choices. If you live where there is snow, you are likely to ski than if you live in a tropical climate.
teaching and coaching (factors affecting variations in skill level)
Teaching and coaching: the quality and provision of coaching available will affect the skill level. For example, Andy Murray left the UK for Spain to develop his tennis skills.
characteristics of a skill performance
accurate, consistent, fluent, coordinated, aesthetically pleasing, goal directed
accurate (characteristics of a skilled performance)
Accurate is achieving precise, reliable movements.
consistent (characteristics of a skilled performance)
Consistent is performing to a high level every time with control and quality.
coordinated (characteristics of a skilled performance)
Coordinated is moving different parts of the body together with efficiency and control.
fluent (characteristics of a skilled performance)
Fluent is using movements that are quick, smooth and flowing, without hesitation or stumbling.
aesthetically pleasing (characteristics of a skilled performance)
Aesthetically pleasing is a display that looks good to the eye of the spectator, judge or coach.
goal directed (characteristics of a skilled performance)
Goal directed is focusing on performing a specific target and being determined to achieve that target.
skill classification continuas
basic and complex, fine and gross, open and closed
basic skills
Basic skills are simple things such as throwing, catching, hitting a ball and running.
complex skills
Complex skills are more difficult skills that require a higher level of coordination and concentration.
fine skills
Fine skills are precise movements that require high levels of accuracy and technique. They are often small movements that require small groups of muscles such as in the fingers.
gross skills
Gross skills are movements that use large muscle groups to produce big, powerful movements. Gross skills are usually performed by the arms and legs.
open skills
Open skills are skills that are affected by the environment. The performer has to react and adjust to the situation, and this will constantly change.
closed skills
Closed skills are skills that are not affected by the environment or the performers within it.
information processing model
The information processing model is the four-stage process that a performer goes through to make a decision and act upon it. It includes input, decision making, output and feedback.
input
Input is the information that is received. The performer receives it via their senses. It could also come from feedback from previous experiences or ‘intuition’. A great deal of information is received so the performer has to select which is best to focus on.
decision making
Decision making is when the information is analysed by the performer so they can choose the most appropriate response. It is stored in the short-term memory at first. If the information is rehearsed, it can be stored in the long-term memory, otherwise it is lost. Experience performers will have more relevant information stored in their long-term memory because they have had more chances to rehearse.
output
Output is when the decision is made and then acted upon. The brain sends information to the muscles which then move and perform the skill or action.
feedback
Feedback is information received about the output or outcome of the decision. That is whether your decision and action was good or bad. This knowledge can be stored and used for future decisions. The performer can receive this information through intrinsic or extrinsic feedback.
short term memory
Short term memory (STM) is a system for storing as small amount of information for a brief period. It can hold up to seven pieces of information for 60 seconds.
long term memory
Long term memory (LTM) is a memory store that can hold vast amounts of information for a long period of time.
limited channel capacity
Limited channel capacity is the idea that our brains can only process a certain amount of information at once, too much information results in an overload.
single channel hypothesis
Single-channel hypothesis is the theory that when receiving many stimuli from the environment, the brain can only deal with one stimulus at a time.
multi channel hypothesis
Multi-channel hypothesis is the theory that the brain can process different types of information at the same time by using different channels for different stimuli.
cognitive stage of learning
The cognitive stage is the understanding, preparation and planning stage. You start to learn the new skill or technique, you consciously think about what is involved and the actions you need to perform the skill, you begin to find out exactly what is involved in the skill, you breakdown the skill into different parts and try to master each part, you make lots of mistakes and need lots of coaching and you may follow an expert and shadow their movements. Cognitive stage participants will benefit from knowledge of results and extrinsic feedback, Cognitive stage performers will benefit from manual guidance, mechanical guidance and visual guidance.
associative stage of learning
The associative stage is the repetition and practising skills and techniques stage. You continue repeating and practicing skills and techniques until they improve, you combine the different parts of a skill, you practice in a controlled environment, you may use specialised equipment to help practise a specific part and you try out move advanced skill and techniques. Associative stage participants will benefit from knowledge of performance and extrinsic feedback. Associative stage performers will benefit from verbal guidance and visual guidance.
autonomous stage of learning
The autonomous stage is the automatic stage. You can perform the skill naturally and without conscious thought, you show control, accuracy and flair, you can play full games and put the techniques you have learned into practice and when you make a mistake you can identify what went wrong. Autonomous stage participants will benefit from intrinsic feedback and knowledge of performance. Autonomous stage performers will benefit from verbal guidance.
feedback
Feedback is the information that a performer receives about their performance.
extrinsic feedback
Extrinsic feedback is the information that comes from an external source, for example a teacher or a coach.
intrinsic feedback
Intrinsic feedback is the information that comes from within, to do with emotions, thoughts and muscles (the feel of a movement, such as what it feels like to balance).
knowledge of results
Knowledge of results is knowing your score, time and distance or place in the race. This allows you to measure or judge how well you have done.
knowledge of performance
Knowledge of performance is analysing your quality of movement or use of techniques e.g. how good your timing felt when batting at cricket or whether a landing after a vault was ‘clean’.
advantages of intrinsic feedback
Performers can make immediate adjustments.
advantages of extrinsic feedback
Good for beginners (cognitive stage) as they need constant feedback in order to learn. Coaches can make beginners aware of basic skills and techniques.
Experienced performers combine extrinsic and intrinsic feedback to get a better picture of their performance.
advantages of knowledge of results
Results give a quick measure of success.
They should be accurate if recorded properly.
Knowledge of results can give a target for improvement.
Helps to show improvement over time if recorded regularly.
advantages of knowledge of performance
Feedback can be tailored to suit the performer’s ability level.
Can be simple feedback on one or two areas for beginners.
Can be specific, complex and detailed for the experienced performers.
disadvantages of intrinsic feedback
Requires high level of knowledge about the skill or activity being performed (autonomous stage).
Beginners do not have this knowledge.
Better for more experienced and skilled performers.
disadvantages of extrinsic feedback
Needs a qualified coach to give the feedback.
Incorrect feedback from a poor-quality coach will cause performances to decline.
disadvantages of knowledge of results
Poor results can be demotivating.
Improvement might slow down, and this can be demotivating.
Results may not reflect skill or performance. Coming third in a race with strong performers may be a better result that coming first in a race with weaker performers.
disadvantages of knowledge of performance
It can be difficult and time-consuming to analyse the performances of experienced sports people.
There may be many skills and techniques that require feedback. This can take time.
The coach ay need to see videos of the performance first in order to get their feedback accurate.
importance of feedback
Feedback allows the performer to identify what they have done well and what needs to be improved. Without feedback, you are isolated and have nothing to compare your performance against.
guidance
Guidance is the help and instruction given to guide learners through movement patterns, skills and techniques and so help them acquire skills.
visual guidance
Visual guidance is what you see. The first way you learn a skill is watching images, videos or through a demonstration.
verbal guidance
Verbal guidance is what you are told. A coach can use words to highlight important images or explain movements and techniques.
manual guidance
Manual guidance is what you feel. A coach can physical guide you through a movement so you begin to acquire the muscle memory. Muscle memory is created through the physical sensation experienced in your muscles being repeated time and again.
mechanical guidance
Mechanical guidance is what supports you. You may need the support of equipment as you start to learn a skill. E.g. a harness when learning to trampoline. Mechanical guidance involves showing you how to use this equipment
advantages of visual guidance
Learners can see accurate performances and form a mental picture of correct performance.
Demonstrations can be repeated if necessary.
The ‘slow motion’ option on videos allows you to focus in on subroutines or specific aspects of a skill.
Useful in all stages of learning.
advantages of verbal guidance
It is immediate. Instructions can be acted on straight away.
Coaches or teachers can use questions to assess and check learning and understanding.
Verbal and visual guidance can be combined to paint a more accurate picture for the learner.
advantages of manual/mechanical guidance
Useful in the early stages of learning when the coach can position or adjust body parts.
Helps individuals get a feel for the movement and develop muscle memory.
Can provide a safe environment to try out more hazardous activities.
Gives performers a sense of security and helps deal with feelings of anxiety and fear.
disadvantages of visual guidance
Demonstrations need to be accurately and expertly performed.
Poor quality videos and not helpful.
disadvantages of verbal guidance
Long or complicated instructions are hard to take in. this can be a particular problem for beginners taking in a lot of new information at once.
Some movements cannot be accurately explained using words.
disadvantages of manual/mechanical guidance
Learners can come to depend on support from a coach or equipment.
Can give learners an unrealistic feeling of the motion.
Learners may resist having the manual or mechanical guidance taken away.
goal
A goal is a desired aim or outcome, something that you are trying to achieve.
SMARTER
specific, measurable, agreed, realistic, time-phased, exciting and recorded
specific
specific – make your goal or target specific
measurable
measurable you can measure whether you have achieved it or not
agreed
agreed you and your coach must discuss and agree goals. They need to be a challenge and achievable in order for you to make progress
realistic
realistic a goal that is too difficult will demotivate you and put you off
time-phased
time-phased goals should be planned out ahead to give you direction over the short, medium and long term. As you achieve these goals you know that you are making progress.
exciting
exciting goals that are exciting and challenging will prevent you from getting bored and disillusioned. As you make progress, your goals should get more difficult and more exciting
recorded
recorded your goals should be written down, then you will know what you are aiming for, where you are going and can check when you have met your targets
goal setting to control anxiety
Goal setting is a way to control anxiety. If a performer is over aroused, they can become anxious and nervous which will affect their performance. By setting goals using ‘SMARTER’, performers can be more confident going into a competitive situation.
motivation
Motivation is the desire required to be successful; a driving force that makes you do something and decide how much effort to put in.
intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is motivation that come from simply doing the activity itself rather than to gain external rewards or prizes. E.g. the desire to do the activity for its own sake, feelings of satisfaction or wellbeing, improved physical fitness or social rewards from playing in a team.
extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation is the motivating forces that come from outside the person and the activity. E.g. praise from a parent or coach in the crowd, rewards in terms of money, prizes, medals or trophies, the desire for attention, publicity or fame and sponsorships or better contracts at the professional level.
how your coach can help you with motivation
If you are intrinsically motivated by a sport or activity, your desire and willingness to continue is a factor that your coach much harness. The coach must ensure that the sessions remain enjoyable so that you will continue. However, if you are extrinsically motivated, the coach can use that appetite for success to set goals focused on achieving rewards.
arousal
Arousal is an increased level of mental excitement and alertness. It is the state of being excited, keen and mentally and physically ready to perform a task.
arousal levels
The optimal arousal level varies for different skills. For examples, fine skills require lower levels of arousal than gross skills.
signs of over arousal
Signs of over-arousal include dry mouth, increased breathing, increased heart rate, nausea, sweaty palms and tremors.
signs of under arousal
Signs of under-arousal include loss of focus and boredom
inverted u theory
The inverted-U (Yerkes-Dodson law) graph provides an indicator as to the level of arousal a performed needs to be at in order to succeed in their sport. If they are under-aroused, the drive and determination will not be at a high enough level. However, if they are over arousal, this can lead to stress and anxiety which may decrease their performance.
labelling the inverted u
arousal is along the bottom and performance is along the side
low arousal levels
When arousal levels are too low you will not be excited to focused enough to perform at the required level. However, fine motor skills such as darts require low levels of arousal to perform well.
optimal arousal levels
When arousal is at the optimal level it is known as being ‘in the zone’ and you are in a state that allows you to perform well.
high arousal levels
When arousal is too high you feel anxious, nervous or stressed and you could become ‘psyched out’ by the opponent. You may make mistakes or not give your best performance.
anxiety
Anxiety is a negative reaction from a performer to stress, caused the performer to feel worried, nervous or apprehensive.
cognitive anxiety
Cognitive anxiety is the mental symptoms that a performer feels such as fear, worry and doubt, that can occur if the performer is in a state of under-arousal or over-arousal.
somatic anxiety
Somatic anxiety is the physical signs of anxiety that can be termed as ‘butterflies in the stomach’, dry mouth, increased breathing, increased heart rate, nausea, sweaty palms and tremors.
what causes anxiety
Anxiety is caused by situations that we perceive as threatening. E.g. uncertainty, pressure, effect on self-esteem, fear of harm or frustration.
visulisation
Visualisation is ‘seeing’ the best positive outcome for the skill or technique that you are about to perform.
mental rehearsal
Mental rehearsal is running through a skill, sequence or event in your mind, in detail, using all of your senses.
deep breathing
Deep breathing is a learned way of breathing in a deep, calm and focused way to promote relaxation as well as physical wellbeing.
how relaxation techniques control arousal
Relaxation techniques can control your arousal by increasing your concentration, controlling your breathing, and reducing your heart rate.
introvert
Introvert is a quiet, shy and reserved personality type. It is associated with individual sports.
extrovert
Extrovert is a sociable, lively, optimistic and outgoing personality type. It is associated more with team sports.
characteristics of an introvert
Quiet, shy and reserved.
Prefer taking part in activities and sports by themselves.
Enjoy their own company and like being on their own.
Are often involved in activities that demand high concentration and accuracy.
Excel at sports that require fine movement skills.
Perform better with lower levels of arousal.
Practice by themselves or in the company of a few others.
Tend to dislike contact sports and have a lower pain tolerance.
characteristics of an extrovert
Sociable, talkative, outgoing and active.
Prefer team sports.
Enjoy interacting with others and get bored easily if on their own.
Prefer activities with lower levels of concentration.
Can be frustrated by precise, intricate movements and prefer sports that require gross motor skills.
Prefer sports that require higher levels of arousal and are played at a faster pace.
Enjoy team practice sessions.
Enjoy contact sports with lots of actions and tend to have a higher pain tolerance.
