Chapter 1 - Anatomy and physiology Flashcards
What are the 4 functions of the skeleton?
Shape and support
Muscle attachment for movement Protection for vital organs
Red blood cell production
Shape and support
Forms the frame to which our muscles can attach and where our organs sit
Muscle attachment for movement
Movement occurs when muscles contact and pull-on bones making them move around a joint
Protection of vital organs
Internal organs are soft, delicate and easily damaged and therefore need to be protected by the skeleton
Red blood cell production
Red blood cell production occurs in the center of bones, such as the pelvis or femur, which contains red bone marrow which creates red blood cells
Diagram of the skeletal system
Long bones
Long bones act as levers to produce a large range of movement. E.g. femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, phalanges and clavicle.
Short bones
Short bones are small and squat bones that enable movement. They can provide movement in lots of directions and also give strength. E.g. carpals and tarsals.
Flat bones
Flat bones provide a large surface area for muscles to attach to. They also provide protection for organs. E.g. pelvis, cranium and scapula.
Irregular bones
Irregular bones provide protection and support. They are suited to suit the specific job they have to do. E.g. vertebrae.
Fixed or immoveable joints (fibrous joints)
Fixed or immoveable joints (fibrous joints) are bones that cannot move at all and are found in the skull (cranium). These joints are also known as fibrous joints as the bones are joined via fibrous connective tissue.
Slightly moveable joints (cartilaginous joints)
Slightly moveable joints (cartilaginous joints) are bones that can move a small amount, and they are linked together by ligaments and cartilage which absorbs the movement. They are found in the vertebral column and the ribs.
Freely moveable joints (synovial joints)
Freely moveable joints (synovial joints) have a greater amount of movement and include the elbow and knee (hinge joints) and shoulder and hip (ball and socket joints).
Ball and socket joints
Ball and socket joints are found in the shoulders and hips. They provide a large range of movement in every direction. One bone has a bulge/ball that fits into the socket of another bone. Ball and socket joints allows actions such as an overhead clear in badminton or bowling in cricket.
Hinge joints
Hinge joints are located in the elbow and the knee and are like the hinges on a door which allows movement in one direction. Your elbows and knees allow you to bend or straighten your arms and legs when performing a jump shot in basketball.
Diagram of a synovial joint
Synovial membrane
Synovial membrane surrounds the joint capsule with a synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid
Synovial fluid acts as a lubricant that reduces friction in the joint and allows for smoother movement and reduces wear and tear.
Joint (fibrous) capsule
Joint (fibrous) capsule is the structure that surrounds and protects the joint, holding the bones together. It is made up of an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a strong but flexible material found at the end of the bones that acts as a cushion to stop bones knocking together.
Ligaments
Ligaments are the strong, elastic fibers that hold the bones together and keep them in place.
Flexion
Flexion involves bending a part of the body and decreasing the angle at a joint. E.g. bending your arm at the elbow.
Extension
Extension means straightening a part of the body and increases the angle at a joint. E.g. straightening your arm at the elbow.
Abduction
Abduction is a sideways movement away from the center of the body. E.g. lifting your arm from your side.
Adduction
Adduction is a sideways movement towards the center of the body. E.g. moving your arm back to your side.
Rotation
Rotation is a turning point around an imaginary line or axis. E.g. turning your head from left to right.
Circumduction
Circumduction occurs when the end of a bone moves in a circle. E.g. swinging your arms in a circle at your shoulder.
Plantar flexion
Plantar flexion is the movement in the ankle joint that points your foot away from the leg. E.g. a gymnast pointing their toes.
Dorsiflexion
Dorsiflexion is the movement in the ankle where the toes are brought closer to the shin. E.g. a sprinter in the blocks.
Comparing range of motion and stability
A ball and socket joint has a wider range of movement and is therefore less stable and more susceptible to injury. However, a hinge joint has a smaller range of movement and is therefore more stable and less susceptible to injury.
Diagram of the muscular system
What is the main action of the trapezius and an example of a sporting action?
Holds and rotates your shoulders. Moves your head back and sideways. A swimmer turning their head to breath.
What is the main action of the deltoids and an example of a sporting action?
Raises each arm forwards, backways and sideways at the shoulder. Overhead clear in badminton.
What is the main action of the pectorals and an example of a sporting action?
Moves the arm at the shoulder through adduction. Forehand drive in tennis.
What is the main action of the biceps and an example of a sporting action?
Bends your arm at the elbow. Drawing back a bow in archery.
What is the main action of the triceps and an example of a sporting action?
Straighten your arm at the elbow. Releasing a javelin or a ball.
What is the main action of the latissimus dorsi and an example of a sporting action?
Pulls your arm down at the shoulder. Draws it behind your shoulder. Swimming strokes.
What is the main action of the abdominals and an example of a sporting action?
Flexes your spine so that you can bend forwards. Creates a pull in the abdomen. Rowing.
What is the main action of the hip flexors and an example of a sporting action?
Supports movement of the leg and knee upwards. Lifting the knees during a sprint.
What is the main action of the gluteals and an example of a sporting action?
Pulls your leg back at the hip. Raise it sideways at the hip. The biggest of the gluteal muscles in the gluteus maximus. Moving the leading leg and train leg when hurdling.
What is the main action of the quadriceps and an example of a sporting action?
Straightens the leg at the knee. Keeps the leg straight to stand up. Getting elevation in a high jump.
What is the main action of the hamstrings and an example of a sporting action?
Bends the leg at the knee. Pulling back of the knee before kicking a ball.
What is the main action of the gastrocnemius and an example of a sporting action?
Straightens your ankle joint so you can perform plantar flexion. Take off for a layup in basketball.
What is the main action of the tibialis anterior and an example of a sporting action?
Helps with dorsiflexion, the action of pulling the foot towards the shin. Walking, running, or tow kicking a ball.
Tendon
A tendon is a tough band of fibrous tissue that connects muscles to a bone and allows movement to happen.
Agonist
The agonist is the muscle that contracts to create movement. Also known as a prime mover.
Antagonist
The antagonist is the muscle that relaxes during movement.
Antagonistic muscle pairs
Antagonistic muscle pairs work is opposition, they create movement when the agonist contracts and the antagonist relaxes.
Isotonic contractions
Isotonic contraction is where muscles change in length as they contract.
Concentric contractions
Concentric contraction is a muscle contraction where the muscles shorten.
Eccentric contractions
Eccentric contraction is a muscle contraction where the muscles lengthens.
Isometric contractions
Isometric contraction is a muscle contract where the muscles stay the same length.
Slow twitch muscle fibres
Slow twitch fibers produce a little force, have a higher fatigue tolerance (do not tire easily), use aerobic energy, contract slowly and are good for endurance activities such as marathon running.
Fast twitch muscle fibres
Fast twitch fibers produce a large amount of force, have a lower fatigue tolerance (tire quickly), contract quickly and are good for strength and power activities such as short distance sprints.
Pathway of air
Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the nasal passages in the nose or the mouth. It travels down the trachea which divides into the left and right bronchi which are the main pathways into the lungs. The airways begin to narrow and branch off into smaller airways called bronchioles. Finally, oxygen reaches the alveoli where gaseous exchange occurs.
Adaptions of the alveoli
Alveoli are small air sacks in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. They are adapted to perform gaseous exchange as there are millions of alveoli in each lung which allows a large, moist surface area for gas exchange to occur. Each individual alveoli is surrounded by blood capillaries which ensure a good blood supply and increases the amount of blood available for the transfer of gases. The walls of the capillaries and alveoli are one cell thick which allows a short distance for the diffusion of gases.
Inhalation
During inhalation, the ribcage moves outwards and upwards as the intercostal muscles contract and lengthen and the diaphragm contracts to become flatter. This increases the volume of the lungs, reduces the pressure in the lungs and the lungs draw in air containing oxygen.
Exhalation
During exhalation, the ribcage moves inwards and downwards as the intercostal muscles relax and the diaphragm relaxes and domes upwards. This reduces the volume of the lungs, increases the pressure in the lungs and forces air containing carbon dioxide out of the body.
Tidal volume
Tidal volume is the volume of air you inhale with each breath during normal breathing. (ml)
Minute ventilation
Minute ventilation is the volume of air, in litres, that you breathe per minute.
Vital capacity
Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you can breathe out.
Residual volume
Residual volume is the amount of air left in your lungs after breathing out.
Minute ventilation formula
Tidal volume (ml) x Number of breaths = Minute ventilation (l/min)
Effects of exercise on tidal volume
Exercise increases your tidal volume to increase the amount of oxygen entering your lungs and entering your blood stream, which means your minute ventilation would also increase.
Components of blood
Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Plasma
Plasma consists mainly of water to allow substances to dissolved and be transported easily.
Red blood cells
Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which reacts with oxygen from the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin and transports oxygen around the body to cells.
White blood cells
White blood cells are part of the immune system which defend the body against pathogens by engulfing them or creating antibodies to attack them.
Platelets
Platelets contain an enzyme that causes blood to clot where there is damage to blood vessels, or they are exposed to air.
Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin reacts with oxygen from the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin (4 oxygens can attach to one haemoglobin) and transports oxygen around the body to cells. Haemoglobin also binds with carbon dioxide from cells to remove it back through the lungs.
Types of blood vessels
Arteries, veins and capillaries
Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They have a narrow lumen, thick outer wall and a thick inner layer of muscle and elastic fibres as blood needs to be transported at a high pressure.
Veins
Veins carry blood towards the heart. They have a wide lumen, a thin outer wall, a thin layer of muscle and elastic fibres and have valves to prevent backflow.
Capillaries
Capillaries delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide directly from muscles and tissues. They are a single cell thick to allow for fast diffusion of gases and blood flows slowest in these blood vessels.
Pulmonary circuit
The pulmonary circuit pumps blood to the lungs and back to the heart.
Systemic circuit
The systemic circuit pumps blood to the body and back to the heart.
Function of atria
The atria receives blood from the body or the lungs and pumps it through the valve to the ventricles.
Function of ventricles
The ventricles receives blood from the atria and pumps it to the lungs or to the body.
Functions of valves
Valves prevent the backflow of blood, ensures blood flows in one direction, allows blood to enter or leave the heart chambers and regulates the flow of blood ensuring it flows at the correct speed
Pathway of blood
deoxygenated blood from the body enters into the right atrium from the vena cava. The right atrium contracts and forces the blood through the valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts and forces the blood through the pulmonary artery into the lungs. The blood gets oxygenated into the lungs and enter the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. The left atrium contracts and forces blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle contracts and forces blood through the aorta out to the body.
Diagram of a heart
Heart rate
Heart rate measures the heart beats per minute when the ventricles are contracting. Measured in beats per minute (bpm)
Cardiac output
Cardiac output is the amount of blood expelled from the heart each minute. Measured in litres per minute (l/min)
Stroke volume
Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out of the heart by each ventricle in one beat. Measured in millilitres (ml)
Cardiac output formula
Heart rate (bpm) x stroke volume (ml) = cardiac output (l/min)
Effect of exercise on the stroke volume
Exercise increases your heart rate and your stroke volume to get more blood and therefore more oxygen around the body. This increases your cardiac output.
Aerobic respiration
glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water. used in longer, low intensity exercises such as marathon runnings.
Anaerobic respiration
glucose -> lactic acid (+energy). used in shorter, high intensity exercises such as short distance sprinting.
Lactic acid
Lactic acid is a waste product formed in the muscles during anaerobic respiration, causing muscle fatigue.
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC or oxygen debt)
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC or oxygen debt) is caused by anaerobic exercise which produces lactic acid and requires a high breathing rate after exercise to remove lactic acid. It is the process of taking in the additional oxygen needed by cells in the body to remove the lactic acid created by anaerobic respiration. Lactic acid + oxygen -> water + carbon dioxide + glucose
Factors affecting recovery time
Overall strength and fitness, genetics, age, gender and sleep
Overall strength and fitness (factors affecting recovery time)
The stronger your muscles are, the quicker they will be at absorbing the oxygen needed to remove lactic acid.
Genetics (factors affecting recovery time)
Some people inherit the ability to recover quickly from their parents. They will recover quickly from a hard bout of exercise whereas others will feel exhausted.
Age (factors affecting recovery time)
As you get older, you generally need a longer recovery time.
Gender (factors affecting recovery time)
Research has found that physically fit women have a greater resistance to fatigue than their male counterparts, especially at low to moderate intensities.
Sleep (factors affecting recovery time)
The amount of sleep you get, and its quality can affect recovery rate. Good sleep helps you body recover physically and mentally. Poor sleep has the opposite effect.
Short term effects of exercise
Heart rate increases, breathing rate increases, red skin/heat control, sweating, fatigue, nausea and light headedness
Heart rate increases (short term effects of exercise)
Heart rate increases as the heart pumps faster to send more oxygen through the blood to the muscles to turn glucose into energy.
Breathing rate increases (short term effects of exercise)
Breathing rate increases to increase the amount of oxygen entering your lungs and then entering the blood stream.
Red skin/heat control (short term effects of exercise)
Red skin/heat control as heat is caused by the muscles contracting. The body has to control the temperature by blood vessels near the surface becoming red as they send warm blood to the surface to get cooled down by the air.
Sweating (short term effects of exercise)
Sweating enables your body to control its temperature by sending water to the surface of the skin to be released by sweat glands. The sweat evaporates for your skin which removes the body heat and cools you down.
Fatigue (short term effects of exercise)
Fatigue happens when muscle fibres work at their maximum for too long.
Nausea (short term effects of exercise)
Nausea can occur during physical activity or shortly after it has stopped especially if you overexert during exercise or do a high intensity exercise too quickly. Nausea is a result of blood flow being diverted away from the stomach to working muscles which results in digestion slowing down and the athlete feeling sick.
Light headedness (short term effects of exercise)
Light headedness is a result of the change in blood pressure from exercise to resting.
Long term effects of exercise
Hypertrophy, bradycardia, increase in stroke volume and lactic acid tolerance, cardiac output increases
Hypertrophy (long term effects of exercise)
Heart size (hypertrophy) is the process whereby the muscle walls in the heart get thicker and stronger as a result of training. This allows them to make a more efficient pump, hold more blood and contract stronger during pumps. This means that you can worker harder, stronger and faster for longer periods of time.
Bradycardia (long term effects of exercise)
Resting pulse rate (bradycardia) is when you develop a slower than normal heart rate. This will occur if they have a hypertrophied heart as they are pumping larger volumes of blood meaning they do not need as many beats.
Stroke volume (long term effects of exercise)
Stroke volume will increase as a person can work harder, stronger and faster for longer. This means that more blood will be pumped out of the ventricle with each beat.
Lactic acid tolerance (long term effects of exercise)
Lactic acid tolerance can be achieved by regular exercise and through interval training.
cardic output increases as a result of long term exercise
cardic output increases as a result of long term exercise
Force
A force is a push or a pull actions applied upon an object. Measured in newtons (N).
Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in a body regardless of its volume or of any forces acting on it. measured in kilograms (Kg).
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes speed. Measured in meters per second or meters per second squared).
Newtons first law of motion (law of inertia)
Newtons first law of motion (law of inertia) states that an object in motion stays at motion at the same speed and in the same direction, and an object at rest will stay rest unless acted upon by an external force.
Newtons second law (law of acceleration)
Newtons second law (law of acceleration) states that an object will accelerate when acted upon by an external force. The acceleration of the object is proportional to this force and is in the direction by which the force acts.
Force formula
Force = mass x acceleration
Newtons third law of motion
Newtons third law of motion states that for every action there exists an equal and opposite reaction.
Gravity
Gravity is a force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth, or towards any other physical body having mass.
Muscular force
Muscular force is a push or pull applied to an object provided by a muscular contraction.
Air resistance
Air resistance is the frictional force that air applies against a moving object.
Ground reaction force
Ground reaction force is the reaction to the force that the body exerts on the ground.
Fulcrum
A fulcrum is a fixed point about which the level can turn. It is sometimes referred to as the axis or pivot. It is represented by a triangle when drawing a lever.
Resistance
Resistance is the load or weight that the level must move. It is represented by a square when drawing a lever.
Effort
Effort is the amount of force required to move the load. It is represented by an arrow when drawing a lever.
First class lever
An example of a first-class lever in the body is nodding the head. The fulcrum is in the middle and is the joint where the skull meets the spine, the effort is the force supplied by the muscle contractions in the neck and the resistance in the weight of the head + the resistance from other muscles in the neck.
Second class lever
An example of a second-class lever in the body is standing on your toes (performing plantar flexion). The resistance is in the middle and is the weight of the body going through the foot, the fulcrum is the ball of the foot and the joints of the toes, and the effort is the force supplied by the muscle contractions in the gastrocnemius.
Third class lever
An example of a third-class lever in the body is doing a bicep curl. The effort is in the middle and is the force supplied by the muscle contractions in the bicep. The bicep attaches about one inch below the elbow joint, the fulcrum is the elbow joint, and the resistance is the weight being lifted.
