Chapter 3- Human Information Processing Flashcards
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black box model
-black box = brain
-visual input goes into brain -> information is processed -> output is some sort of motor response due to muscle contractions collaborating with the skeletal system
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stages of information processing
1) Take in visual information + transform it into motor information (processing)
2) Human information processing based on computer metaphor
3) Take in information from outside sources, like a computer takes in information through input devices
4) Information is transformed, uses other information stored in memory, + subject to certain limitations based on amount processed + speed of available processing
5) Process of information output can result in movement like a computer displays information of its processing on a monitor or sends it as an output
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serial processing
non-overlapping stages of final assembly + test drive
-we have to put the parts of the car together (body, tires, etc.) first before we can put the engine in
-we must do 1 thing before the other
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parallel processing
overlapping in time with the assembly of the electronics, engine, + body stages
-we can put in the electronics at the same time as the engine + wheels
-timing has no effect on each other
can both serial + parallel be used
yes- human system uses both, but occurs at different times within a sequence
serial/parallel cooking analogy
-I can cut the onions at the same time my boyfriend washes the tomatoes, BUT I can’t put those things together to make salad before they have been done on their own
-2 things can be done together, but before it is done they can’t be combined
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reaction time
the time between a stimulus + a response
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3 steps of reaction time
-stimulus identification
-response-selection
-response-programming/execution
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stimulus identification
steps of reaction time
-individual must detect that a stimulus occurred + identify it
-the stimulus does not get processed until you put your finger on what it actually is
-ex: a fire alarm goes off -> I need to recognize that the fire alarm has gone off + identify that it is actually a fire alarm
stimulus clarity
extent to which visual stimulus is defined + sharp
stimulus intensity
magnitude of stimulus (yelling vs whispering)
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response-selection
steps of reaction time
-individual must decide which response to make of many optimal actions, including ignoring
-increased possible response alternatives causes an increase in the choice reaction time (based on Hick’s Law)
-ex: I hear the fire alarm, recognize it’s a fire alarm, + decide- I can either hide in my office to ignore it or recognize I need to grab my things + step outside for safety
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response-programming/execution
steps of reaction time
-individual must prepare system for the appropriate action + initiate the actions (preparations of motor apparatus + initiation of action)
-individual must first identify a stimulus (step 1) + select a response (step 2) before they can organize + start an action
-in this step, individual retrieves program of action, prepares program for activation, readies relevant portions of motor system, + initiates movement
-ex: I’ve decided to save myself + leave the building -> I must tell my body/muscles/skeletal system to get out of chair, walk towards the door, + leave
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Sternberg’s additive factors method
assumption: RT is equal to the sum of the durations of non-overlapping stages
-uses degraded + complicated stimulus
-no matter how many stages were affected, overall RT will increase
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degraded stimulus
Sternberg’s additive factors method
stimulus quality is not vivid/clear -> results in longer RT
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complicated stimulus
Sternberg’s additive factors method
task has more than 1 movement or relies on accuracy -> also results in more RT
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Hick’s law
-Hick + Hyman studied relationship between choice reaction time + number of S-R alternatives
-found that choice RT increases by a constant amount every time the number of alternatives doubles
-more alternatives = more information processing needed = longer RT
Hick’s law equation
choice RT = a + b [Log 2 (n)]
-a + b: constants; a is y-int, b is slope
-RT: reaction time
-n: number of options
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exceptions to Hick’s law
-familiarity with responding to a particular stimulus by means of specific (when there is familiarity involved with the choices, we don’t see the increase in RT that we see with more choices)
-effects of practice basis for automaticity in responding (with enough practice, there is an automatic response, so no increase in RT)
-overlearned S-R relations (sometimes the relations are learned too much, so no increase in RT; think of overstudying to the point that learning stops)
-rapid eye movements to targets (saccades; it is biologically normal to turn eyes towards stimulus/target)
-relation between stimulus + response influence response selection (if there is a relation between stimulus + response it will cause greater RT; you turn to the pair that seems “normal” to you)
anti-saccade task
subject must refrain from looking at the stimulus
-costs subject time because you must actively inhibit this tendency
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stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility
association or degree of naturalness between stimulus + response vital on information processing
who first coined the term S-R compatibility
Arnold Small
who were credited with S-R compatibility, didn’t create concept but did further work
Seeger + Daneinger
what did Fitts’ + Seeger’s protocol show
protocol showed that there ARE combinations where subjects are fastest + most accurate
-this contradicts the concept of speed-accuracy tradeoff
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S-R compatible
when a right-positioned stimulus requires right-hand response + left stimulus signals left hand
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S-R incompatible
when left signal indicates right-hand response + right signal gives a left-hand response
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population stereotypes
-S-R relations may go from arbitrary to natural via practice + experience
-different populations have their own stereotypes, which results in S-R relations that are different from others
-ex: in the U.S. you flip the light switch down to turn the light off; in Germany pulling the light switch down turns the lights on
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Simon effects
-used when designers create interfaces for machines like cars + websites
-you flip handle down to turn on left blinker + up to turn on right blinker; if these were flipped it would be frustrating + RT would increase
randomized fore-periods
stimulus creates variability, so the subject doesn’t anticipate
Poulton
created categories for types of anticipation (receptor, effector, + perceptual)
receptor
Poulton’s categories for types of anticipation
batter sees ball approaching
effector
Poulton’s categories for types of anticipation
batter must time bat swing start so bat + ball meet at proper location over plate
perceptual
Poulton’s categories for types of anticipation
realizing catching + returning the ball to the base influences the game you’re playing
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spatial anticipation
anticipate future activities by knowing what kinds of stimuli could be presented + what kinds of responses will be required for each anticipated stimuli
-ex: goalie must anticipate which direction to dive, because takes time after deciding and would be too late otherwise
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temporal anticipation
anticipate when something will occur
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does spatial or temporal anticipation result in more significant RT reductions
temporal
if we get advance information, what happens
time can be shortened by skipping the response-selection stage
T/F: in many situations, the benefit of correct anticipation is small compared to the cost of false anticipation
true
Henry + Rogers
-studied nature of movement to be produced using a simple RT paradigm to evaluate motor programs stored in memory
-they conducted an experiment where subjects knew the exact response required; subjects were asked to make different movements while keeping stimulus + number of response alternative the same (only 1 S-R alternative)
-3 tasks versions (lifting finger from key), where each was similar but more complex -> they found greater time with complexity due to greater time to program movement
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working memory
temporary use + storage system for information
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long-term memory
permanent repository of information
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2 types of influences on memory
-direct
-indirect
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direct influence on memory
deliberate attempt to recollect past experiences for purpose of facilitating current information processing; search + retrieval
-failure to recall a specific memory as a purposeful + explicit means to solve a problem
-ex: trying to remember a SPECIFIC name
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indirect influence on memory
memory for past experience
-impact on ability to carry out activity
-no need to recollect specific information for memory of skill to influence performance
-ex: remembering where to put fingers on keyboard in order to type
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short-term sensory store (STSS)
holding massive amounts of information for brief periods of time for various stimulus modes (vision, touch, auditory, kinesthesis, etc.)
-loses information very rapidly with time
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short-term memory (STM)
storage system for information delivered either from STSS or from LTM
-limited capacity + short duration
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working memory
STM comprised limited capacity workspace for various operations
-information from STSS can be stored temporarily for processing
-information from LTM can be retrieved for processing + integrated with STSS information
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long-term memory (LTM)
practiced or rehearsed; more permanent + protected from loss
-transferred from STM to LTM
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STSS storage duration
less than 1 second
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STM storage duration
1 second to 60 seconds
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LTM storage duration
seemingly limitless
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STSS type of coding
very literal
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STM type of coding
more abstract
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LTM type of coding
very abstract
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STSS capacity
seemingly limitless
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STM capacity
7 +/- 2 items
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LTM capacity
seemingly limitless
