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Biology > Chapter 3: Biological Macromolecules > Flashcards

Chapter 3: Biological Macromolecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four major macromolecules?

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids

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2
Q

dehydration synthesis

A

when monomers combine to create polymers and release water as a byproduct

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3
Q

How is water created in a dehydration synthesis reaction?

A

The hydrogen of one monomer combines with a hydroxyl group of another monomer

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4
Q

How are monomers bonded in a dehydration synthesis reaction?

A

When a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group form water, the leftover oxygen creates a covalent bond between the monomers

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5
Q

hydrolysis

A

when a polymer is broken up into its monomer components

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6
Q

What molecule is needed in a hydrolysis reaction?

A

Water

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7
Q

How are polymers broken into monomers in hydrolysis?

A

Each monomer gains hydrogen or a hydroxyl group when water is split

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8
Q

What is the stoichiometric formula for carbohydrates?

A

(CH2O)n

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9
Q

What does ‘n’ represent in the carbohydrate stoichiometric formula?

A

The number of carbon atoms in the molecule

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10
Q

What is the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates?

A

1:2:1

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11
Q

What are the three subtypes of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

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12
Q

monosaccharides

A

simple sugars

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13
Q

What is the suffix for most monosaccharides?

A

-ose

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14
Q

aldehyde group

A

functional group where carbonyl group is attached to one hydrogen and another group

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15
Q

aldose

A

monosaccharide with an aldehyde group

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16
Q

ketone group

A

functional group where carbonyl group is attached to two carbon groups

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17
Q

ketose

A

monosaccharide with a ketone group

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18
Q

carbonyl group

A

a carbon and oxygen atom bound by a double bond

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19
Q

What are the three types of monosaccharides by number of carbon atoms?

A

Trioses, pentoses and hexoses

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20
Q

asymmetric carbon

A

carbon that is attached to four other atoms or groups

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21
Q

anomeric carbon

A

the carbon atom in a carbon ring derived from the carbonyl group

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22
Q

α glucose

A

glucose where the hydroxyl group is below the anomeric carbon

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23
Q

β glucose

A

glucose where the hydroxyl group is above the anomeric carbon

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24
Q

How many carbons are in a glucose ring?

A

Six

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25
Q

How many carbons are in a ribose ring?

A

Five

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26
Q

How many carbons are in a fructose ring?

A

Five

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27
Q

How many carbons can a carbon ring have and still be stable?

A

Five or six

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28
Q

What are two common isomers of glucose?

A

Galactose and fructose

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29
Q

What is another name for an anomeric carbon?

A

Carbon 1

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30
Q

disaccharide

A

two monosaccharides bound together

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31
Q

glycosidic bond

A

a covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate with another molecule

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32
Q

What bond holds together a disaccharide?

A

A glycosidic bond

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33
Q

What are the two types of glycosidic bonds when glucose is part of a disaccharide?

A

An alpha bond and a beta bond

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34
Q

alpha glycosidic bond

A

glycosidic bond that forms below carbon 1 because the OH group was below carbon 1

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35
Q

beta glycosidic bond

A

glycosidic bond that forms above carbon 1 because the OH group was above carbon 1

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36
Q

What are three common disaccharides?

A

Lactose, maltose and sucrose

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37
Q

lactose

A

disaccharide of glucose and galactose

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38
Q

maltose

A

disaccharide of two glucose molecules

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39
Q

sucrose

A

disaccharide of glucose and fructose

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40
Q

amylose

A

a linear-shaped glucose polymer that is a component of starch

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41
Q

amylopectin

A

a branched glucose polymer that is a component of starch

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42
Q

What bonds join glucose in starch?

A

Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds and alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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43
Q

alpha 1-4 glycosidic bond

A

glycosidic bond where the carbon 1 of one monomer is joined to the carbon 4 of another monomer

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44
Q

alpha 1-6 glycosidic bond

A

glycosidic bond where the carbon 1 of one monomer is joined to the carbon 6 of another monomer

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45
Q

Where are alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds found in starch?

A

At linearly joined glucoses

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46
Q

Where are alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds found in starch?

A

At the branch points between glucoses

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47
Q

What glycosidic bonds are found in amylose?

A

Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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48
Q

What glycosidic bonds are found in amylopectin?

A

Alpha 1-4 and alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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49
Q

What is the animal equivalent of starch?

A

Glycogen

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50
Q

glycogen

A

glucose polymer

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51
Q

What is the general structure of glycogen?

A

It is highly branched

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52
Q

What is the role of glycogen?

A

To store energy

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53
Q

cellulose

A

glucose polymer

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54
Q

What is the role of cellulose?

A

It makes up most of the cell wall in a plant

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55
Q

What is the most abundant natural polymer?

A

Cellulose

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56
Q

Which bond joins glucose together in cellulose?

A

Beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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57
Q

How is each glucose arranged in cellulose?

A

They are alternately flipped

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58
Q

chitin

A

polysaccharide containing nitrogen

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59
Q

What is the main role of chitin?

A

As an exoskeleton for arthropods and it is part of the cell wall in fungi

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60
Q

What are the two main parts of a fat molecule?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

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61
Q

What is glycerol made up of?

A

Three carbons, five hydrogens and three hydroxyl groups

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62
Q

How many carbons does a fatty acid have?

A

Four to thirty-six

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63
Q

What bond joins fatty acids to glycerol?

A

An ester bond through an oxygen

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64
Q

Where are fatty acids joined to glycerol?

A

Fatty acids are joined to carbon atoms on the glycerol

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65
Q

Through which process are fatty acids joined to glycerols?

A

Dehydration synthesis reaction

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66
Q

What are other names for fat?

A

Triacylglycerols or triglycerides

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67
Q

What is a fat in liquid form called?

A

Oil

68
Q

monounsaturated fat

A

unsaturated fat with only one double bond

69
Q

polyunsaturated fat

A

unsaturated fat with more than one double bond

70
Q

How is hydrogen configured in a cis fat?

A

Hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond

71
Q

How is hydrogen configured in a trans fat?

A

Hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond

72
Q

How are oils artificially turned into trans fats?

A

Hydrogen gas is bubbled through oil so some cis fats can gain hydrogen and becomes trans fats

73
Q

essential fatty acids

A

fatty acids that the body needs but does not synthesise on its own

74
Q

What are the two essential fatty acids for humans?

A

Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids

75
Q

Why does omega-3 fatty acid have a ‘3’ in its name?

A

The third carbon from the hydrocarbon chain’s end is joined to the neighbouring carbon by a double bond

76
Q

Why does omega-6 fatty acid have a ‘6’ in its name?

A

The sixth carbon from the hydrocarbon chain’s end is joined to a neighbouring carbon by a double bond

77
Q

carboxyl group

A

oxygen is bound to carbon with a double bond and a hydroxyl group is bound to carbon with a single bond

78
Q

What are the three types of omega-3 fatty acids?

A

ALA, EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids

79
Q

phospholipid

A

lipid with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group

80
Q

diacylglyercol

A

lipid with two fatty acids attached

81
Q

alcohol

A

any molecule with a hydroxyl group attached to a carbon

82
Q

sphingosine backbone

A

more complex alcohol that can serve as a lipid backbone like glycerol

83
Q

phosphatidate

A

the precursor to phospholipids

84
Q

What is phosphatidate composed of?

A

A diacylglycerol and an unmodified phosphate group

85
Q

How does phosphatidate become a phospholipid?

A

An alcohol modifies the phosphate group

86
Q

Is phosphatidate a phospholipid?

A

No, it is only a precursor

87
Q

What are the two main phospholipids that are in the cell membrane?

A

Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine

88
Q

amphipathic

A

having both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic component

89
Q

Which part of a phospholipid is hydrophilic?

A

The phosphate head

90
Q

Which part of a phospholipid is hydrophobic?

A

The fatty acid chains

91
Q

What type of structure do steroids have?

A

A fused ring structure with a short tail

92
Q

steroid

A

a type of lipid with four carbon rings

93
Q

Why are steroids classified as lipids?

A

They are hydrophobic and insoluble in water

94
Q

How many carbon rings do all steroids have?

A

Four

95
Q

What is the most common steroid?

A

Cholesterol

96
Q

Where is cholesterol synthesised?

A

In the liver

97
Q

sterol

A

steroids with a hydroxyl group

98
Q

What is the main sterol in animals?

A

Cholesterol

99
Q

What is the main sterol in plants?

A

Phytosterol

100
Q

substrate

A

a reactant that binds to an enzyme

101
Q

What three main actions do enzymes help in?

A

Breakdown, rearrangement or synthesis reactions

102
Q

catabolic enzymes

A

enzymes that breakdown their substrates

103
Q

anabolic enzymes

A

enzymes that build more complex molecules from their substrates

104
Q

catalytic enzymes

A

enzymes that affect the rate of reaction

105
Q

hormone

A

chemical-signalling molecules

106
Q

Where are hormones secreted?

A

In endocrine cells

107
Q

denaturation

A

modification of protein structure so that it loses its function

108
Q

What are the two main shapes of proteins?

A

Globular or fibrous

109
Q

How many amino acids are there currently?

A

Twenty

110
Q

amino acid

A

monomer of proteins

111
Q

What are all amino acids composed of?

A

A central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and an R group

112
Q

alpha carbon

A

carbon atom that directly connected to a functional group

113
Q

amino group

A

functional group composed of NH2

114
Q

What is the pH of a carboxyl group?

A

Acidic

115
Q

Why is an amino acid called an amino acid?

A

An amino acid has a amino group and a carboyxl-acid-group attached

116
Q

How many essential amino acids are there?

A

Nine

117
Q

What determines an amino acid’s properties?

A

The R group

118
Q

peptide bond

A

covalent bond that joins amino acids together

119
Q

How are peptide bonds formed?

A

Through a dehydration synthesis reaction

120
Q

Which two groups in an amino acid form a peptide bond?

A

The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another come together in a dehydration reaction

121
Q

peptide

A

two or more linked amino acids

122
Q

polypeptide

A

a long chain of amino acids

123
Q

amino terminal

A

the free amino group at one end of a polypeptide chain

124
Q

What is another name for an amino terminal?

A

N terminal

125
Q

carboxyl terminal

A

the free carboxyl group at one end of a polypeptide chain

126
Q

What is another name for a carboxyl terminal?

A

C terminal

127
Q

What is the difference between a polypeptide and a protein?

A

A polypeptide is a general chain of amino acids whereas a protein is the finalised and functional verson

128
Q

primary structure

A

the sequencing structure of amino acids in polypeptide chains

129
Q

disulphide bond

A

a bond held together by two sulphurs

130
Q

How do disulphide bonds form?

A

Two sulfhydryl groups react in the presence of oxygen in a dehydration reaction

131
Q

sulfhydryl

A

A sulphur and hydrogen bonded together

132
Q

Which amino acid replaces glutamate in a sickle cell hemoglobin?

A

Valine

133
Q

Which amino acid is replaced by valine in a sickle cell hemoglobin?

A

Glutamate

134
Q

secondary structure

A

the local folding of polypeptide chains

135
Q

What are the two most common secondary structures?

A

The alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet

136
Q

How are alpha-helixes and beta-pleated sheets held together?

A

By hydrogen bonds

137
Q

How far apart is each hydrogen bond in an alpha-helix?

A

Hydrogen bonds are located every three to four residues along the chain

138
Q

How long is every helical turn in an alpha-helix?

A

3.6 residues

139
Q

Where are hydrogen bonds formed in alpha-helixes and beta-pleated sheets?

A

Between the oxygen in the carbonyl group of one amino acid and the hydrogen in the amino group of another

140
Q

Where are the R groups in alpha-helixes?

A

They protrude outward from the helix

141
Q

Where are the R groups in beta-pleated sheets?

A

They extend above and below the pleated sheets

142
Q

What are the two configurations of beta-pleated sheets?

A

Parallel and antiparallel

143
Q

tertiary structure

A

the three-dimensional folding structure of a polypeptide chain

144
Q

How is a protein’s tertiary structure determined?

A

By the interactions among the R groups

145
Q

How are R groups arranged in a protein’s tertiary structure?

A

Nonpolar hydrophobic R groups tend to lie on the inside of the protein, and polar hydrophilic R groups on the outside

146
Q

Which types of chemical interactions affect a proteins tertiary structure?

A

Hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding and disulphide bonding

147
Q

quaternary structure

A

the formation of a protein of several polypeptide chains

148
Q

Is denaturation irreversible?

A

No, sometimes it is reversible

149
Q

How is denaturation reversible sometimes?

A

Denaturation does not affect the primary structure so if the denaturing agent is removed, the protein can refold

150
Q

chaperones

A

protein helpers that help proteins fold properly

151
Q

What are the three components of a nucleotide?

A

A nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and one or more phosphate groups

152
Q

Which carbon in the pentose sugar is a nitrogenous base attached to?

A

Carbon 1

153
Q

Which carbon in the pentose sugar is a phosphate group attached to?

A

Carbon 5

154
Q

In a polynucleotide, where does the incoming nucleotide attach?

A

The 5’ phosphate group of the incoming nucleotide attached to the 3’ hydroxyl group of the polynucleotide

155
Q

What is the difference between deoxyribose and ribose?

A

Deoxyribose has a hydrogen at the 2’ position and ribose has a hydroxyl group at the 2’ position

156
Q

Why are nitrogenous bases called ‘bases’?

A

They have an amino group attached and they are considered basic

157
Q

Why are nitrogenous bases called ‘nitrogenous’?

A

Because they contain nitrogen

158
Q

purine

A

nitrogenous base that has two carbon-nitrogen rings

159
Q

Which nitrogenous bases are considered purines?

A

Adenine and guanine

160
Q

pyrimidine

A

nitrogenous bases that have one carbon-nitrogen ring

161
Q

Which nitrogenous bases are considered pyrimidines?

A

Cytosine, thymine and uracil

162
Q

phosphodiester linkage

A

covalent bond where chains of nucleotides in a polynucleotide are held together by a phosphate group

163
Q

How far is each nitrogenous base pair from the next pair?

A

0.34 nanometers

164
Q

ribonucleotide

A

nucleotide made up of nitrogenous base, ribose sugar and phosphate group

165
Q

What are the four major types of RNA?

A

Messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA and microRNA

Biology (9 decks)

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