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Archive > Chapter 29 - Human Development and Aging > Flashcards

Chapter 29 - Human Development and Aging Flashcards

1
Q

The study of prenatal development

A

Embryology

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2
Q

Examines changes in form and function from fertilized egg through old age

A

Developmental biology

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3
Q

3 primary germ layers of an embryo

A

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

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4
Q

an individual becomes an embryo when it is _ days old

A

16

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5
Q

events leading up to the stage of an embryo

A

embryogenesis

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6
Q

what stage is the first 16 days after fertilization

A

pre-embryonic stage

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7
Q

fertilized egg at 16 days old

A

embryo

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8
Q

the egg must be fertilized within _ - _ _ of ovulation, if it is to survive

A

12-24 hours

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9
Q

how long after the sperm reaches the uterine tube does it take to fertilize the egg

A

10 hours

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10
Q

where do the sperm generally meet the egg during ovulation

A

distal uterine tube

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11
Q

How long are sperm viable for after ejaculation

A

6 days

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12
Q

when sperm encounters an egg, it undergoes what

A

acrosomal reaction

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13
Q

exocytosis of the acrosome, releasing enzymes needed to penetrate the egg

A

acrosomal reaction

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14
Q

what two things do sperm need to clear out of the way for the one sperm to penetrate the egg

A

granulosa cells and zona pellucida

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15
Q

what are the two acrosomal enzymes

A

hyaluronidase and acrosin

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16
Q

this digests hyaluronic acid that binds granulosa cells together

A

hyaluronidase

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17
Q

a protease similar to trypsin

A

acrosin

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18
Q

combines the haploid set of sperm chromosomes with the haploid set of egg chromosomes producing a diploid set

*must know for test

A

fertilization

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19
Q

fertilization by two or more sperm which would produce a doomed fertilized egg

A

polyspermy

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20
Q

two mechanisms to prevent polyspermy

A

fast block and slow block

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21
Q

binding of sperm to the egg opens na+ channels in egg membrane

A

fast block

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22
Q

involves secretory vesicles, cortical granules, just below membrane

stimulates cortical reaction, in which cortical granules release secretion beneath zona pellucida

sperm penetration releases an inflow of ca+

A

slow block

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23
Q

two eggs ovulated and both are fertilized by separate sperm forming two zygotes

implant separately in uterine wall and each have own placenta

no more genetically similar than any other siblings

2/3 of twins

A

dizygotic twins

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24
Q

one egg is fertilized but embryoblast later divides into 2

genetically identical

A

monozygotic twins

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25
Q

this begins meiosis II before ovulation but completes it only if fertilized

A

secondary oocyte

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26
Q

sperm and egg swell and become _______

A

pronuclei

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27
Q

what is a fertilized egg called

A

zygote

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28
Q

pregnancy is divided into 3 month intervals called…

A

trimester

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29
Q

during this trimester conceptus is most vulnerable to stress, drugs and nutritional deficiencies

A

first trimester

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30
Q

during this trimester organs complete most of their development

fetus looks human

A

second trimester

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31
Q

during this trimester, fetus grows rapidly and organs achieve enough cellular differentiation to support life

A

third trimester

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32
Q

the first 16 days of development culminating in the existence of an embryo

A

pre embryonic stage

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33
Q

the 3 major processes of the pre embryonic stage

A

cleavage, implantation, embryogenesis

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34
Q

mitotic divisions that occur in first 3 days while conceptus migrates down uterine tube

A

cleavage

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35
Q

what’s it called when the zygote splits in to two daughter cells

A

blastomeres

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36
Q

how long does it take for conceptus to arrive in uterus

A

72 hours after ovulation

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37
Q

a solid ball of 16 cells - resembles mulberry

occurs during cleavage process of pre embryonic stage

A

morula stage

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38
Q

how long does the morula lie free in the uterine cavity

A

4-5 days

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39
Q

when the zona pellucida disintegrates and releases conceptus - it’s called…

*know for test

A

blastocyst

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40
Q

a hollow sphere

*know for test

A

blastocyst

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41
Q

outer layer of squamous cells

destined to form placenta and nourish the embryo

A

trophoblast

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42
Q

what is the embryoblast and what does it become

*know for test

A

the inner cell mass of a blastocyst

it becomes the embryo

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43
Q

*know migration of conceptus photo for test

slide 29-16

A
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44
Q

during implantation ______ attaches to uterine wall 6 days after ovulation

usually on the fundus or posterior wall of uterus

A

blastocyst

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45
Q

the process of attachment of blastocyst to uterine wall

A

implantation

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46
Q

trophoblasts on attachment side separate into ___ layers

A

2

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47
Q

what are the layers of the trophoblast called once it separates

and where are they located

A

superficial layer - in contact with endometrium

deep layer - close to embryoblast

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48
Q

What hormone does trophoblast secrete

A

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

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49
Q

trophoblast develops into membrane called….

A

chorion

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50
Q

HCG stimulates corpus luteum and it secretes (2) hormones

A

estrogen and progesterone

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51
Q

arrangement of blastomeres into 3 primary germ layers in embryoblast

A

embryogenesis

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52
Q

what are the names of the 3 primary germ layers of an embryoblast

A

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

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53
Q

multiplying epiblast cells migrate medially into primitive groove

A

gastrulation

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54
Q

gastrulation replaces the original hypoblast with layer called

A

endoderm

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55
Q

migrating epiblast cells form a 3rd layer btwn first two. this layer is called…

A

mesoderm

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56
Q

the remaining epiblast layer is called…

A

ectoderm

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57
Q

this is a more loosely organized tissue which differentiates into a loose fetal connective tissue, called mesenchyme

A

the mesoderm

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58
Q

this gives rise to muscle, bone, and blood

A

mesoderm

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59
Q

what is complete once the 3 primary germ layers are formed

A

embryogenesis

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60
Q

once embryogenesis is complete, an individual is considered a….

A

embryo

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61
Q

this begins when all 3 primary germ layers are present (usually day 16)

A

embryonic stage

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62
Q

this is the embryo’s primary source of nutrition. after the first 2 weeks are complete, it forms over the next 6 weeks

A

the placenta

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63
Q

germ layers differentiate into organs and organ systems

A

organogenesis

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64
Q

organs are present at how many weeks

A

at 8 weeks when the embryo becomes a fetus

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65
Q

formation of organs from primary germ layers:

what derivatives from the ectoderm

A

epidermis, nervous system, lens and cornea, internal ear

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66
Q

formation of organs from primary germ layers:

derivatives of mesoderm

A

skeleton, muscle, cartilage, blood, lymphoid tissue, gonads and ducts, kidneys and ureters

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67
Q

formation of organs from primary germ layers:

derivatives of endoderm

A

gut and respirator epithelium and glands, bladder and urethra

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68
Q

what are the accessory organs that develop with embryo

A

placenta, umbilical cord and 4 embryonic membranes

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69
Q

what are the 4 embryonic membranes

A

amnion, yolk sac, allantois, and chorion

70
Q

the transparent sac that develops from epiblast

A

amnion

71
Q

arises from hypoblast cells opposite amnion

A

yolk sac

72
Q

begins as an outpocketing of yolk sac

forms foundation for umbilical cord

becomes part of urinary bladder

A

allantois

73
Q

outermost membrane enclosing all the rest of membranes and embryo

A

chorion

74
Q

the shaggy outgrowths of the chorion. are around the entire surface

A

chorionic villi

75
Q

know photo on 29-30

A
76
Q

during gestation, the conceptus is nourished in 3 different ways. what are the 3 ways

A

uterine milk, trophoblastic nutrition, placental nutrition

77
Q

this is the glycogen rich secretion of the uterine tubes and endometrial glands

A

uterine milk

78
Q

conceptus consumes decidual cells of endometrium

A

trophoblastic nutrition

79
Q

as conceptus burrows into endometrium, ___________ digests these cells and supplies nutrients to embryoblast

A

syncytiotrophoblast

80
Q

from the corpus luteum, this stimulates decidual cells to proliferate

A

progesterone

81
Q

nutrients diffuse from mother’s blood through placenta into fetal blood

A

placental nutrition

82
Q

disc shaped organ attached to uterine wall; attached by way of umbilical cord to fetus

A

placenta

83
Q

period beginning week 9

A

placental phase

84
Q

by the end of week 8 - what is the embryo like

A
  1. all organ systems are present
  2. considered a fetus
  3. bones have begun to calcify
  4. heart has been beating since week 4, now circulates blood
  5. head is nearly half of total body length
  6. skeletal muscles have spontaneous contractions
85
Q

what is the baby called from week 9 - birth

A

fetus

86
Q

6-8 hour period immediately following birth when neonate must adapt to life outside mother

A

transitional period

87
Q

the first 6 weeks of life

A

neonatal period

88
Q

what is considered a premature baby

A

infants born weighing less than 5.5lbs

89
Q

infants born before 7 months suffer from (4)

A

infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)

thermoregulatory

digestive issues

immature liver

90
Q

what causes infant respiratory distress syndrome

A

insufficient surfactant which causes alveolar collapse with exhalation

91
Q

what digestive issues does a premature baby have

A

small stomach volume, undeveloped sucking and swallowing reflexes

92
Q

what liver problems do premature babies have

A

failure to synthesize adequate proteins which results in edema, and clotting deficiency

jaundice

93
Q

abnormal structures or positions of organs at birth resulting from defect in prenatal development

A

birth defect or congenital anomalies

94
Q

what is the study of birth defects

A

teratology

95
Q
  1. these are agents that cause anatomical deformities in the fetus
  2. they fall into 3 categories - what are the 3 classes
A
  1. teratogens

2. drugs and other chemicals, infectious diseases, radiation such as xrays

96
Q

what is the drug that caused birth defects; was taken by mothers for morning sickness or insomnia

A

thalidomide

97
Q

what causes more birth defects than any other drug

A

alcohol

98
Q

this is characterized by small head, stunted growth, nervousness, poor attention span, cardiac and central nervous system defects

cause by alcohol

A

fetal alcohol syndrome

99
Q

this contributes to fetal and infant mortality, ectopic pregnancy, cleft palate and cardiac anomalies

A

cigarette smoking

100
Q

what kinds of microorganisms can cross placenta and cause serious anomalies, stillbirth, neonatal death

A

viral infections and bacterial infections

101
Q
  1. these appear to account for one third of all birth defects
  2. there are two types - what are they
A
  1. genetic anomalies

2. mutations and mutagens

102
Q

changes in dna structure

A

mutations

103
Q

environmental agents cause mutation

A

mutagens

104
Q

failure of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis; can cause genetic disorder

A

nondisjunction

105
Q

the presence of an extra chromosome or lack of one

A

aneuploidy

106
Q

lack of a chromosome leaves one without a match

A

monosomy

107
Q

the extra chromosome produces a triple set

A

trisomy

108
Q

examination of cells in amniotic fluid

A

amniocentesis

109
Q

biopsy of cells from chorion

A

chorionic villi sampling

110
Q

egg receiving two X chromosomes fertilized by X carrying sperm

-infertile female with mild intellectual impairment

A

triplo-X syndrome (XXX)

111
Q

egg receiving two X chromosomes fertilized by Y carrying sperm

-sterile males with average intelligence (undeveloped testes)

A

klinefelter syndrome (XXY)

112
Q

egg contains no X chromosome but is fertilized by X carrying sperm

  • 97% die before birth
  • webbed necks, widely space nipples, sterile, short stature, sexual characteristics fail to develop at puberty
A

turner syndrome (XO)

113
Q

what 3 autosomal trisomies are survivable

A

involve chromosomes 13, 18, 21

114
Q

trisomy -13

A

patau syndrome

nearly all die before birth

infants born are severely deformed and less than 5% survive first year

115
Q

trisomy-18

A

edward syndrome

nearly all die before birth

infants born are severely deformed, and less than 5% survive 1 year

116
Q

trisomy - 21

A

down syndrome - most survivable trisomy

short stature, relatively flat face with flat nasal bridge, low set ears, epicanthal folds at medial corners of eye, stubby fingers

1 in 700-800 live births in US

chance of down syndrome is 1 in 3000 in woman under 30; 1 in 365 in woman over 35; 1 in 9 in woman by 48

117
Q

all changes occurring in body with passage of time: growth, development, and degenerative changes occur later in life

A

aging

118
Q

degeneration occurs in organ systems after age of peak functional efficiency

A

senescence

119
Q

what is intrinsic aging of skin

A

photoaging - degeneration in proportion to UV exposure: skin spots, skin cancer, wrinkling

120
Q

senescence of the skeletal system

A

osteopenia - loss of bone mass

osteoporosis - loss is severe enough to affect person’s physical activity and health

121
Q

senescence of joint diseases

A

osteoarthritis - common cause of physical disability

synovial fluid less abundant and articular cartilage thinner or absent producing friction that causes pain

122
Q

senescence of muscular system

A

muscular atrophy - causes replacement of muscle with fat

123
Q

senescence of the nervous system

A

involves cerebral and neuronal atrophy

nervous system reaches peak at 30 years

plaques of fibrillar proteins appear: Alzheimer disease - most common nervous disability of old age

124
Q

senescence of the endocrine system

A

degenerates less than any other system

only reproductive, growth and thyroid hormones show major declines

type II diabetes more common

125
Q

senescence of vison and hearing

A

vision: cataracts; loss of flexibility of lenses; glaucoma; night vision impaired
hearing: tympanic membrane and ossicle joints stiffen; death of vestibular neurons results in dizziness;

taste and smell are blunted as receptors decline

126
Q

loss of flexibility of lenses in eye

A

presbyopia

127
Q

senescence of the circulatory system

A

anemia - results from poor nutrition, lack of exercise, diseases, low level of intrinsic factor needed for vitamin B12 absorption and low levels of erythropoietin

coronary atherosclerosis - leads to degeneration of myocardium

varicose veins - due to weaker valves

128
Q

senescence of immune system

A

lymphatic tissue and red bone marrow decline with age

lymphocytes fail to mature

both types of immune response are less efficient - less protection from cancer and infectious disease

129
Q

senescence of the respiratory system

A

declining pulmonary ventilation

elderly less able to clear lungs of irritants, pathogens

 - pneumonia
 - respiratory infections

chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (copd):
-emphysema and chronic bronchitis

130
Q

senescence of urinary system

A

renal atrophy: 20-40% smaller by age 90 vs 30
-loss of nephrons; filtration rate decreases

fluid balance

- dehydration common    - less responsive to antidiuretics, sense of thirst reduced

voiding and bladder control
-80% men over 80 have benign prostatic hyperplasia

131
Q

senescence of digestive system

A

reduced saliva makes teeth more prone to cavities and makes swallowing difficult.

gastric mucus atrophies and secretes less acid and intrinsic factor***

intestinal motility decreased due to weaker muscle tone, less fiber, water and exercise

constipation

reduced food intake due to loss of appetite increases malnutrition

**know for exam

132
Q

senescence of male reproductive system

A

gradual decline in testosterone secretion, sperm count and libido

fertile in old age

impotence may occur due to atherosclerosis, hypertension, medication or psychological reasons

133
Q

senescence of female reproductive system

A

abrupt changes due to menopause

elevated risk of osteoporosis and atherosclerosis

vaginal dryness, genital atrophy and reduced libido

134
Q

best ways to slow senescence

A

good nutrition and exercise

135
Q

resistance exercise reduces ____ ____

A

bone fractures

136
Q

decline in mitotic potential with age

  • telomeres
  • organ functions depends on cell renewal keeping pace with cell death, but human cells only divide a limited number of times
A

replicative senescence

137
Q

ends of the chromosomes that diminish with each division

A

telomeres

138
Q

what plays role in senescence

A

extrinsic (environmental) factors - progressively damage cells over lifetime

heredity

intrinsic process governed by inevitable or even programmed changes in cell function

139
Q

genetic disorder showing accelerated aging

A

progeria

140
Q
  • dna suffers thousands of damaging events per day
  • most damages are repaired, some persist and accumulate as cells age, especially in nondividing cells
  • cumulative damage impairs function
A

DNA damage theory

141
Q
  • autoimmune diseases become more common with old age
  • altered macromolecules may be recognized as foreign
  • may stimulate lymphocytes to mount an immune response against bodys own tissues
A

autoimmune theory

142
Q

is there a definable instant of biological death

A

no

  • some organs function for an hour after heart stops
  • brain death is lack of cerebral activity, reflexes, heartbeat and respiration for 30 min-24 hrs
143
Q

What is letter A

A

Cleavage

144
Q

what is letter B

A

zygote

145
Q

What is letter C

A

Second polar body

146
Q

what is letter D

A

morula

147
Q

what is letter E

A

Blastocyst

148
Q

what is letter F

A

implanted blastocyst

149
Q

what is letter G

A

blastomeres

150
Q

what is H

A

egg

151
Q

what is I

A

sperm

152
Q

what is J

A

zona pellucida

153
Q

what is K

A

fertilization

154
Q

what is L

A

first polar body

155
Q

what is M

A

ovary

156
Q

what is N

A

Maturing follicle

157
Q

what is O

A

corpus luteum

158
Q

What is P

A

ovulation

159
Q

What day of implantation is this

A

6-7 days

160
Q

what day of implantation is this

A

day 8

161
Q

what germ layer is A

A

ectoderm

162
Q

what germ layer is B

A

mesoderm

163
Q

what germ layer is C

A

endoderm

164
Q

What is letter A

A

chorionic villlus

165
Q

what is letter B

A

placenta

166
Q

what is letter C

A

yolk sac

167
Q

what is letter D

A

umbilical cord

168
Q

what is letter E

A

amniotic fluid

169
Q

what is letter F

A

amnion

170
Q

what is letter G

A

chorion

171
Q

what is letter H

A

lumen of uterus

172
Q

senescence of urinary system

A

renal atrophy: 20-40% smaller by age 90 vs 30

fluid balance

voiding and bladder control

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