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Archive > Chapter 17 - Endocrine System > Flashcards

Chapter 17 - Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

the endocrine system influences metabolic activities via _______ transported in blood

A

hormones

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2
Q

the study of hormones and endocrine organs

A

endocrinology

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3
Q

which system responds slower but lasts longer: endocrine or nervous

A

endocrine

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4
Q

the endocrine system controls and integrates what 5 things

A
  1. reproduction
  2. growth and development
  3. maintenance of electrolyte, water and nutrient balance of blood
  4. regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
  5. mobilization of body defenses
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5
Q
  • non-hormonal substances (sweat, saliva)
  • have ducts to carry secretion to membrane surface
  • release outside the blood
A

exocrine glands

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6
Q
  • produce hormones
  • lack ducts (ductless)
  • release insdie the blood
A

endocrine glands

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7
Q

what are the endocrine glands

A

pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands

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8
Q

what is the neuroendocrine organ

A

hypothalamus

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9
Q

what glands have exocrine and endocrine functions

A

pancreas, gonads, placenta

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10
Q

what tissues and other organs produce hormones

A 
adipose cells,
thymus
cells in walls of small intestine
stomach
kidneys
heart
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11
Q

2 main classes of hormones

A

amino acid based hormones

steroids

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12
Q

what do amino acid based hormones consist of

A

-amino acid derivatives, peptides and proteins

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13
Q

these are synthesized from cholesterol

gonadal and adrenocortical hormones

A

steroids

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14
Q

long distance chemical signals; travel in blood or lymph

A

hormones

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15
Q

chemicals that exert effects on same cells that secrete them

*not formal endocrine system

A

autocrines

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16
Q

locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them

*not formal endocrine system

A

paracrines

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17
Q

what are not considered hormones (2)

A

autocrines and paracrines

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18
Q

what are local chemical messengers

A

autocrine and paracrine

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19
Q

tissues with receptors for specific hormones

A

target cells

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20
Q

though hormones circulate systemically, only cells with ______ for that hormone are affected

A

receptors

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21
Q

mechanisms on hormone action on target cells may be able to: (5)

A
  • alter plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential by opening or closing ion channels
  • stimulate synthesis of enzymes or other proteins
  • activate or deactivate enzymes
  • induce secretory activity
  • stimulate mitosis
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22
Q

hormones act at receptors in 1 of 2 ways, depending on chemical nature and receptor location

A
  1. water soluble hormones (all amino acid based hormones except thyroid hormone)***
  2. lipid soluble hormones (steroid & thyroid hormones)

***know for test

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23
Q

what hormones cannot enter the cell

A

water soluble hormones (all amino acid based hormones except thyroid hormone)

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24
Q

what hormones can enter the cell

A

lipid soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid hormones)

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25
Q
  • act on plasma membrane receptors

- act via G protein second messengers

A

water soluble hormones

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26
Q

-act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes

A

lipid soluble hormones

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27
Q

cAMP signaling mechanism steps - 5

A
  1. hormone (first messenger) binds to receptor
  2. receptor activates G protein
  3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase
  4. adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP (second messenger)
  5. cAMP activates protein kinases that phosphorylate proteins
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28
Q
  • activated kinases phosphorylate various proteins, activating some and inactivating others
  • is rapidly degraded by enzyme
  • intracellular enzymatic cascades have huge amplification effect
A

cAMP signaling mechanism

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29
Q

what does PIP2 stand for

A

phosphatidyl inositol biphosphate

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30
Q

-involves G protein and membrane bound effector phospholipase c

A

PIP2 - calcium signaling mechanism

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31
Q

what splits PIP2 into two second messengers

A

phospholipase c

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32
Q

what are the two second messengers formed from PIP2 when it splits

A

diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

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33
Q

DAG activates protein ______; IP3 causes ____ release

A

kinase ; CA2+

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34
Q

what ions act as second messenger for PIP2

A

calcium

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35
Q

cGMP acts as second messengers for some hormones. what does cGMP stand for

A

cyclic guanosine monophosphate

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36
Q

intracellular receptors and direct gene activation for steroid hormones and thyroid hormone (5)

A
  1. diffuse into target cells and bind with intracellular receptors
  2. receptor-hormone complex enters nucleus; binds to specific region of dna
  3. prompts dna transcription to produce mRNA
  4. mRNA directs protein synthesis
  5. promote metabolic activities, or promote synthesis of structural proteins or protein for export from cell
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37
Q

target cells must have ______ _______ to which hormone binds

A

specific receptors

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38
Q

examples of specific receptors are:

A

ACTH receptors found only on certain cells of adrenal cortex

thyroxin receptor found on nearly all cells of body

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39
Q

Direct gene activation mechanism of lipid soluble hormones ( 5 steps)

A
  1. steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor
  2. receptor hormone complex enters nucleus
  3. receptor hormone complex binds specific DNA region
  4. binding initiates transcription of gene to mRNA
  5. mRNA directs protein synthesis
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40
Q

what 3 factors do target cells activation depend on

A
  1. blood levels of hormone
  2. relative number of receptors on or in target cell
  3. affinity of binding between receptor and hormone
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41
Q

target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels

A

up regulation

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42
Q

target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels

A

down regulation

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43
Q

these are controlled by negative feedback systems

vary only within narrow, desirable range

A

blood levels of hormones

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44
Q

endocrine gland stimulated to synthesize and release hormones in response to (3)

A

hormonal stimuli
neural stimuli
humoral stimuli

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45
Q

nerve fibers stimulate hormone release

A

neural stimuli

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46
Q

sympathetic nervous system fibers stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete ___

A

catecholamines

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47
Q

Stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla

  1. what is the response
  2. is this humoral, neural or hormonal stimuli
A

response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine

neural stimuli

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48
Q

changing blood levels of ions and nutrients directly stimulate secretion of hormones

example: ca in blood

A

humoral stimuli

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49
Q

Stimulus: low concentration of CA in capillary blood

What is the response? Is this neural, humoral or hormonal stimuli?

A

Response: Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca

Humoral stimuli

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50
Q

hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones

A

hormonal stimuli

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51
Q

Stimulus: Hormones from hypothalamus

What is the response? Is this humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli?

A

Response: Anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones

Hormonal stimuli

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52
Q

hypothalamic hormones stimulate release of most ____ _____ hormones

A

anterior pituitary

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53
Q

____ _____ hormones stimulate targets to secrete still more hormones

A

anterior pituitary

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54
Q

what is the hypothalamic-pituitary target endocrine organ feedback loop

A

hormones from final target organs inhibit release of anterior pituitary hormones

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55
Q

nervous system modifies stimulation of _____ _____ and their negative feedback mechanisms

A

endocrine glands

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56
Q

what can override normal endocrine controls

A

nervous system

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57
Q

what hormones circulate in blood free and which ones are bound

A
  • steroid and thyroid hormone are attached to plasma proteins
  • all others circulate without carriers
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58
Q

the concentration of circulating hormone reflects what two things

A
  1. rate of release

2. speed of inactivation and removal from body

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59
Q

what 3 things remove hormones from blood

A
  1. degrading enzymes
  2. kidneys
  3. liver
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60
Q

time required for hormone’s blood level to decrease by half

A

half life

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61
Q
  • these are limited
  • ranges from 10 secs to several hours
  • effects may disappear as blood levels drop
  • some persist at low blood levels
A

duration of hormone activity

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62
Q

what is the onset of hormone activity

A
  • some are immediate
  • some hours to days
  • some must be activated in target cells
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63
Q

what hormones act on same target at same time (3)

A

permissiveness, synergism, antagonism

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64
Q

one or more hormones oppose action of another hormone

A

antagonism

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65
Q

more than one hormone produces same effects on target cell —> amplification

A

synergism

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66
Q

one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present

A

permissiveness

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67
Q

pituitary gland has two major lobes

A

posterior - neural tissue

anterior - glandular tissue

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68
Q

these are transported to and stored in posterior lobe of pituitary

A

neurohormones

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69
Q

nuclei of hypothalamus synthesize neurohormones ____ and ____

this takes place in _____ lobe of pituitary

A

oxytocin & antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

posterior

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70
Q

downgrowth of hypothalamic neural tissue

neural connection to hypothalamus

A

posterior lobe of pituitary

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71
Q

originates as outpocketing of oral mucosa

vascular connection to hypothalamus

A

anterior lobe of pituitary

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72
Q

hypothalamus controls release of hormones from posterior lobe of pituitary
(4)

A
  1. hypothalamic neurons synthesize oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  2. oxytocin and adh are transported down axons of hypothalamic - hypophyseal tract to posterior pituitary
  3. oxytocin and adh are stored in axon terminals in posterior pituitary
  4. when hypothalamic neurons fire, action potentials arriving at axon terminals cause oxytocin or adh to be released into blood
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73
Q

contains primary capillary plexus, hypophyseal portal veins, secondary capillary plexus

A

hypophyseal portal system of anterior lobe of pituitary gland

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74
Q

the hypophyseal portal system carries _____ and ____ hormones to anterior pituitary to regulate hormone secretion

A

releasing and inhibiting hormones

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75
Q

The hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the pituitary gland in two different ways - anterior lobe

A
  1. when appropriately stimulated, hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing or inhibiting hormones into the primary capillary plexus
  2. hypothalamic hormones travel through portal veins to the anterior pituitary where they stimulate or inhibit release of hormones made in anterior pituitary
  3. in response to releasing hormones the anterior pituitary secretes hormones into the secondary capillary plexus. in turn this empties into general circulation.
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76
Q

hypothalamic neurons synthesize

A

GHRH, GHIH, TRH, CRH, GnRH, PIH

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77
Q

hormones that come out of the anterior lobe of pituitary

A

GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL

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78
Q
  • inhibits or prevents urine formation
  • regulates water balance
  • target kidney tubules - reabsorb more water
  • release also triggered by pain, low blood pressure and drugs
A

ADH

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79
Q
  • strong simulant of uterine contraction
  • released during childbirth
  • hormonal trigger for milk ejection
A

oxytocin

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80
Q

hormones of the anterior pituitary hormone

*KNOW FOR TEST

A
  • growth hormone (GH)
  • thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • follicle-stimulating hormone
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • prolactin (PRL)
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81
Q
  • produced by somatotropic cells
  • direct actions on metabolism
    - increases blood levels of fatty acids; encourages use of fatty acids for fuel; protein synthesis
  • indirect actions on growth
  • mediates growth via growth-promoting proteins - insulin like growth factors
  • major targets - bone and skeletal muscle
A

growth hormone (GH)

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82
Q

GH release chiefly regulated by hypothalamic hormones

A
  • growth hormone - release hormone (GHRH)
    • stimulates release
  • growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
    • inhibits release
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83
Q

hunger hormone also stimulates release

A

ghrelin

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84
Q

hypersecretion in children results in

A

gigantism

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85
Q

hyposecretion in children results in

A

pituitary dwarfism

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86
Q
  • produced by thyrotropic cells of anterior pituitary
  • stimulates normal development and secretory activity of thyroid
  • release trigged by thyrotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus
A

thyroid stimulating hormone

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87
Q
  • secreted by corticotropic cells of anterior pituitary

- stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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88
Q
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • secreted by cells of anterior pituitary
  • FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
  • LH promotes production of gonadal hormones
A

gonadotropins (FSH and LH)

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89
Q

regulation of gonadotropin release

A
  • triggered by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty
  • suppressed by gonadal hormones
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90
Q
  • secreted by cells of anterior pituitary
  • stimulates milk production
  • role in males not well understood
  • regulation of PRL release
    • primarily controlled by prolactin inhibiting hormone
A

prolactin (PRL)

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91
Q

regulation of ACTH release

A
  • triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone in daily rhythm
  • internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors can alter release of CRH
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92
Q

another name for prolactin-inhibiting hormone

A

dopamine

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93
Q

regulation of thyroid hormone secretion

A

hypothalamus —-TRH— anterior pituitary —-TSH—– thyroid gland —- thyroid hormones —- target cells

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94
Q

thyroid gland has two lateral lobes connected by median mass. It is called

A

isthmus

95
Q

-composed of follicles produce glycoprotein thyroglobulin

A

thyroid gland

96
Q

fills lumen of follicles and is precursor of thyroid hormone

A

colloid

97
Q

produce the hormone calcitonin

A

parafollicular cells

98
Q
  • affects virtually every cell in body
  • actually two related compounds
    * T4
    * T3
A

thyroid hormone

99
Q

has 2 tyrosine molecules + 4 bound iodine atoms

A

T4 (thyroxine)

100
Q

has 2 tyrosines + 3 bound iodine atoms

A

T3 (triiodothyronine)

101
Q
  • major metabolic hormone
  • increases metabolic rate and heat production
  • regulation of tissue growth and development
  • maintenance of blood pressure
A

thyroid hormone

102
Q

this links together to form t3 and t4

A

iodinated tyrosines

103
Q

this is endocytosed and vesicle is combined with a lysosome

A

colloid

104
Q

T3 and T4 are cleaved and diffuse into ___

A

bloodstream

105
Q

synthesis of thyroid hormone - 7 steps

A
  1. thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into follicle lumen
  2. iodine is trapped (actively transported in)
  3. iodide is oxidized to iodine
  4. iodine is attached to tyrosine is colloid, forming DIT and MIT
  5. iodinated tyrosines are linked together to form T3 and T4.
  6. thyroglobulin colloid is endocytosed and combined with a lysosome
  7. lysosomal enzymes cleave T4 and T3 from thyroglobulin and hormones diffuse into bloodstream
106
Q

thyroid gland stores hormone where

A

extracellularly

107
Q

this is synthesized and discharged into follicle lumen

A

thryoglobulin

108
Q

this is actively taken into cell and released into lumen

A

iodides

109
Q

iodide oxidized to

A

iodine

110
Q

iodine attaches to _____, mediated by peroxidase enzymes

A

tyrosine

111
Q

T3 and T4 are transported by

A

thyroxine-binding globulins

112
Q

T4 and T3 both bind to ____ ____, but T3 is 10x more _____ than T4

A

target receptors ; active

113
Q

these convert T4 to T3

A

peripheral tissues

114
Q

what type of feedback regulates of TH

A

negative

115
Q

rising TH levels provide negative feedback inhibition on release of

A

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

116
Q

this can overcome negative feedback during pregnancy or exposure to cold

A

hypothalamic thyrotropin releasing hormone

117
Q
  • this is produced by parafollicular cells

- has no known physiological role in humans

A

calcitonin

118
Q

the antagonist to parathyroid hormone

A

calcitonin

119
Q

at higher than normal doses:

- inhibits osteoclast activity and release of Ca from bone matrix
- stimulates Ca uptake and incorporation into bone matrix
A

calcionin

120
Q

functions:

  • stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix and release Ca to blood
  • enhances reabsorption of Ca and secretion of phosphate by kidneys
A

parathyroid hormone

121
Q

promotes activation of vitamin D: increases absorption of Ca by intestinal mucosa

A

parathyroid hormone

122
Q

rising Ca in blood inhibits PTH release is what kind of feedback

A

negative feedback control

123
Q

most important hormone in Ca homeostasis

A

PTH

124
Q

4-8 tiny glands embedded in posterior aspect of thyroid

contain oxyphil cells

A

parathyroid glands

125
Q

parathyroid cells secrete

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

126
Q
  • paired pyramid shaped organs atop kidneys

- structurally and functionally are 2 glands in one

A

adrenal glands

127
Q

the part of the adrenal glands that is nervous tissue; part of the sympathetic nervous system

A

adrenal medulla

128
Q

part of the adrenal glands that is 3 layers of glandular tissue

A

adrenal cortex

129
Q

the adrenal cortex secretes

A

corticosteroids

130
Q

the three layers of the adrenal cortex

A

zona glomerulosa
zona fasciculata
zona reticularis

131
Q

zona glomerulosa produce _____

A

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

132
Q

zona fasciculata produces ___

A

glucocorticoids (cortisol)

133
Q

zona reticularis produces ____

A

gonadocorticoids (androgens)

134
Q

aldosterone release is triggered by

A
  • decreasing blood volume and blood pressure

- rising blood levels of K

135
Q

the most potent mineralocorticoid

A

aldosterone

136
Q

stimulates Na reabsorption and water retention by kidneys; elimination of K

A

aldosterone

137
Q

these regulate electrolytes (primarily Na and K) in what

A

extracellular fluids

138
Q

what is the importance of Na

A

affects ECF volume, blood volume, blood pressure, levels of other ions

139
Q

what is the importance of K

A

sets resting membrane potential of cells

140
Q

decreased blood pressure stimulates kidneys to release renin

A

renin angiotensin aldosterone mechanism

141
Q

what triggers formation of angiotensin II

A

renin

142
Q

what is a potent stimulator of aldosterone release

A

angiotensin II

143
Q

what are the mechanisms of aldosterone secretion

A

renin angiotensin aldosterone mechanism
plasma concentration of K
ACTH
atrial natriuretic peptide

144
Q

increased K directly influences zona glomerulosa cells to release aldosterone

A

plasma concentration of K

145
Q

what causes small increases of aldosterone during stress

A

ACTH

146
Q

blocks renin and aldosterone secretion to decrease blood pressure

A

atrial natriuretic peptide

147
Q
  • keeps blood glucose levels relatively constant

- maintains blood pressure by increasing action of vasoconstrictors

A

glucocorticoids

148
Q

what are the 3 glucocorticoids

A

cortisol
cortisone
corticosterone

149
Q

only glucocorticoid that is significant amounts in humans

A

cortisol (hydrocortisone)

150
Q
  • this is released in response to ACTH patterns of eating and activity and stress
  • saves glucose for brain
  • enhances vasoconstriction
A

cortisol

151
Q

formation of glucose from fats and proteins

A

gluconeogensis

152
Q

this is the prime metabolic effect is gluconeogenesis

A

cortisol

153
Q

these are the most weak androgens converted to testosterone in tissue cells, some to estrogens

A

gonadocorticoids (sex hormones)

154
Q

this may contribute to the onset of puberty; appearance of secondary sex characteristics; sex drive in women; estrogens in postmenopausal women

A

gonadocorticoids (sex hormones)

155
Q

medullary chromaffin cells synthesize two hormones

A

epinephrine (80%)

norepinephrine (20%)

156
Q

are the medullary chromaffin cells in the adrenal cortex or adrenal medulla

A

adrenal medulla

157
Q

this stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilation and blow flow to skeletal muscles and heart

A

epinephrine

158
Q

what influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure

A

norepinephrine

159
Q

the effects are:

  • vasoconstriction
  • increased heart rate
  • increased blood glucose levels
  • blood diverted to brain, heart and skeletal muscle
A

medullary chromaffin cells

160
Q

hyperglycemia, increased metabolic rate, rapid heartbeat and palpitations, hypertension, intense nervousness, sweating

A

hypersecretion

161
Q
  • not problematic

- adrenal catecholamines not essential to life

A

hyposecretion

162
Q

short term stress uses what in the adrenal gland

A

adrenal medulla

163
Q

prolonged stress uses what in the adrenal gland

A

adrenal cortex

164
Q

effects of long term stress response

A
  • kidneys retain sodium and water
  • blood volume and blood pressure rise
  • proteins and fats converted to glucose or broken down for energy
  • blood glucose increases
  • immune system surpressed
165
Q

effects of short term stress response

A
  • heart rate increases
  • blood pressure increases
  • bronchioles dilate
  • liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases glucose to blood
  • metabolic rate increases
  • blow flow changes, reducing digestive system activity and urine output
166
Q

small gland hanging from roof of 3rd ventricle

A

pineal gland

167
Q

these secrete melatonin, derived from serotonin

A

pinealocytes

168
Q
  • the triangular gland partially behind stomach

- has both exocrine and endocrine cells

A

pancreas

169
Q
  • these produce enzyme rich juice for digestion

- exocrine

A

acinar cells

170
Q

these contain endocrine cells in the pancreas

A

pancreatic islets

171
Q

what is another name for pancreatic islets

A

islets of langerhans

172
Q

these cells produce glucagon in the pancreas

A

alpha cells

173
Q

these produce insulin in the pancreas

A

beta cells

174
Q
  • this causes increased blood glucose levels

- the major target is the liver

A

glucagon

175
Q

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

A

glycogenolysis

176
Q

synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates

A

gluconeogenesis

177
Q

effects of glucagon

A

glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis
release of glucose to blood

178
Q
  • lowers blood glucose levels
  • enhances membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells
  • inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
  • participates in neuronal development and learning and memory
A

effects of insulin

179
Q

what is the normal blood glucose level

A

about 90 mg/100 ml

180
Q
  • this activates tyrosine kinase enzyme receptor
  • triggers enzymes:
    • catalyze oxidation of glucose of ATP production - first priority
    • polymerize glucose to form glycogen
    • convert glucose to fat
  • cascade –> increased glucose uptake
A

insulin action on cells

181
Q

what is the primary stimulus that influence insulin release

A

elevated blood glucose levels

182
Q

factors that influence insulin release (5)

A
  1. elevated blood glucose levels
  2. rising blood levels of amino acids and fatty acids
  3. release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibers
  4. hormones - glucagon, epinephrine, growth hormone, thyroxine, glycocorticoids
  5. somatostatin; sympathetic nervous system
183
Q

glucose spilled into urine

A

glycosuria

184
Q

this is due to hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin

A

diabetes mellitus

185
Q

untreated ketoacidosis leads to….

A

hypernea - disrupted heart activity and O2 transport; depression of nervous system —> coma and death possible

186
Q

fats used for cellular fuel is called…

A

lipidema

187
Q

if lipidemia is severe - ketones from fatty acid metabolism into ….

A

ketonuria and ketoacidosis

188
Q

3 cardinal signs of diabetes mellitus

A

polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia

189
Q

excessive hunger and food consumption

-cells cannot take up glucose and are starving

A

polyphagia

190
Q

excessive thirst

A

polydipsia

191
Q

huge urine output

A

polyuria

192
Q

excessive insulin secretion

A

hyperinsulinism

193
Q

what are causes of hypoglycemia

A
  • low blood glucose levels

- anxiety, nervousness, disorientation, unconsciousness, even death

194
Q

hormone producing structures in adipose tissue

A

leptin, resistin, adiponectin

195
Q

appetite control; stimulates increased energy expenditure

A

leptin

196
Q

insulin antagonist

A

resistin

197
Q

enhances sensitivity to insulin

A

adiponectin

198
Q

this secretes estrogens, progesterone, and hCg

A

placenta

199
Q

gonads produce what type of hormones

A

steroid sex hormones

200
Q

ovaries produce these two hormones

A

estrogen and progesterone

201
Q
  • maturation of reproductive organs
  • appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
  • with progesterone, causes breast development and cyclic changes in uterine mucosa
A

estrogen

202
Q

testes produce which hormone

A

testosterone

203
Q
  • this initiates maturation of male reproductive organs

- causes appearance of male secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive

A

testosterone

204
Q

what are the hormone producing structures of the gastrointestinal tract

A

enteroendocrine cells

205
Q

what are the hormones of the enteroendocrine cells of the GI tract

A

gastrin
secretin
cholecystokinin
serotonin

206
Q

this acts as a paracrine

A

serotonin

207
Q

this stimulates pancreas, gall bladder and hepatopancreatic sphincter

A

cholecystokinin

208
Q

this stimulates liver and pancreas

A

secretin

209
Q

this stimulates release of HCl

A

gastrin

210
Q

hormone produced by the heart

A

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

211
Q

decreases blood Na concentration therefore blood pressure and blood volume

A

atrial natriuretic peptide

212
Q

hormones produced by the kidneys

A

erythropoietin and renin

213
Q

this signals production of red blood cells

A

erythropoietin

214
Q

this initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism

A

renin

215
Q

-large in infants and children; shrinks as age

A

thymus

216
Q

the hormones produced by thymus

A

thymulin, thymopoietins and thymosins

217
Q
  • may be involved in normal development of T lymphocytes in immune response
  • classified as hormones; act as paracrines
A

thymulin, thymopoietins and thymosins

218
Q

hormone produced by osteoblasts (skeleton)

A

osteocalcin

219
Q
  • activated by insulin
  • prods pancreas to secrete more insulin; restricts fat storage
  • low levels of osteocalcin in type 2 diabetes
A

osteocalcin

220
Q

hormone produced by the skin

A

cholecalciferol

221
Q

what is a precursor for vitamin D

A

cholecalciferol

222
Q

what can affects hormone function

A

exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals, arsenic dioxin, and soil and water pollutants

223
Q

what are vulnerable to the effects of pollutants

A

sex hormones, thyroid hormone, glucocrticoids

224
Q

what may explain the increase rates of cancer in some areas

A

interferences with glucocorticoids

225
Q

what is letter A

A

pineal gland

226
Q

what is letter B

A

hypothalamus

227
Q

what is letter C

A

pituitary gland

228
Q

what is letter D

A

thyroid gland

229
Q

what is letter E

A

parathyroid glands

230
Q

what is letter F

A

thymus

231
Q

what is letter G

A

adrenal glands

232
Q

what is letter H

A

pancreas

233
Q

what is letter I

A

ovary

234
Q

what is letter J

A

testis

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