Chapter 26 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
function of kidneys (8)
A
- exception of wastes
- regulation of blood ionic composition
- regulation of blood pH
- regulation of blood volume
- regulation of blood pressure
- maintenance of blood osmolarity
- production of hormones
- regulation of blood glucose
2
Q
renal hilum
A
indentation in concave border of kidney where ureter emerges from the kidney along with blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
3
Q
3 layers of tissue around the kidneys from deep to superficial
A
renal capsule: transparent DICT continuous with outer ureter; trauma barrier/maintain shape
adipose capsule: fatty capsule; trauma barrier/holds in place
renal fascia: DICT; anchors to surrounding structures
4
Q
renal cortex vs medulla
A
superficial, light red vs deep, dark red/brown
5
Q
renal pyramids (what, faces what)
A
makes up renal medulla
base (wider) faces cortex
apex (called renal papilla) faces renal hilum
6
Q
renal cortex zones
A
cortical zone
juxtamedullary zone
7
Q
renal columns
A
portion of renal cortex that extends between renal pyramids
8
Q
parenchyma
A
renal cortex, pyramids, medulla constitute this (functional portion)
9
Q
nephrons (what/drain into)
A
functional units of kidney, drain into papillary ducts
10
Q
minor/major calyces (what/number)
A
cup-like structures that papillary ducts drain into
8-18 minor, 2-3 major in each kidney
11
Q
renal pelvis receives ______ from ______ _______
A
urine
major calyces
12
Q
renal sinus (where, contains, what helps stabalize)
A
cavity within the kidney
contains part of the renal pelvis, the calyces, and branches of the renal blood vessels and nerves. Adipose tissue helps stabilize the position of these structures in the renal sinus.
13
Q
path of blood flow through the kidneys (14)
A
Renal artery
Segmental arteries
Interlobar arteries
Arcuate arteries
Cortical radiate arteries
Afferent arterioles
Glomerular capillaries
Efferent arterioles
Peritubular capillaries
Peritubular venules
Cortical radiate veins
Arcuate veins
Interlobar veins
Renal vein
14
Q
nephron parts
A
renal corpuscle: where blood plasma is filtered
renal tubule: filtered fluid passes
15
Q
renal corpuscle parts (nephron)
A
glomerulus (capillary network)
glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule: double-walled epithelial cup that surrounds the glomerular capillaries
16
Q
where is blood plasma filtered in a nephron
A
in the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule of the renal corpuscle
17
Q
renal tubule sections (nephron)
A
(1) proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) (in renal cortex)
(2) nephron loop (loop of Henle) (in renal medulla)
(3) distal convoluted tubule (DCT) (in renal cortex)
18
Q
The first part of the nephron loop begins at the point where the proximal convoluted tubule takes its final turn ________. It begins in the renal cortex and extends downward into the renal medulla, where it is called the _______ ____ of the nephron loop. It then makes that hairpin turn and returns to the renal cortex where it terminates at the distal convoluted tubule and is
known as the _______ ______ of the nephron loop
A
downward
descending limb
ascending limb
19
Q
cortical vs juxtamedullary nephrons (percentage, where renal corpsucle is, length of nephron loops/what they meet, blood supply, ascending limb portions)
A
80-85%, renal corpuscle in outer cortex, short nephron loops just reach outer medulla, receive blood from peritubular capillaries, only 1 ascending limb portion
vs
15-20%, renal corpsucle deep in cortex, long nephron loop into depp medulla, blood supply from peritubular capillaries and vasa recta, has thin and thick ascending limb portions
20
Q
A single layer of ________ ____ forms the entire wall of the glomerular capsule, renal tubule, and ducts
A
epithelial cells
21
Q
glomerular capsule (visceral/parietal layer and capsular space)
A
visceral layer: consists of podocytes-modified simple squamous epithelial cells, foot projections attach to glomerular capillaries
parietal layer: simple squamous epi
capsular space: between two layers, filtered fluid is here, continuous with lumen of renal tubule
22
Q
proximal convoluted tubule (part of renal tubule) histology
A
Simple cuboidal epithelial cells with prominent brush borders of microvilli
23
Q
Nephron loop: descending limb and
thin ascending limb histology
A
simple squamous epithelium
24
Q
Nephron loop: thick ascending limb histology
A
simple cuboidal to low columnar epithelium
25
Most of distal convoluted tubule
(DCT) histolgy
simple cuboidal epithelium
26
Last part of DCT and all of collecting
duct (CD) histology
Simple cuboidal epithelium consisting of:
principal cells- have receptors for both
ADH and aldosterone
intercalated cells-play a role in the
homeostasis of blood pH
27
juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) (function/2 parts)
helps regulate blood pressure
within the kidneys
macula densa of final part ascending limb: crowded columnar tubule cells that makes contact with afferent arteriole
juxtaglomerular cells of afferent arteriole: modified smooth M cells
28
3 basic functions performed by nephrons and collecting ducts and where it occurs
1. glomerular filtration: filtered in glomerular capillaries, move to glomerular capsule then renal tubule
2. tubular reabsorption: tubule cells reabsorb 99% of filtered water/solutes, returns to blood via vasa recta/peritubular capillaries
3. tubular secretion: renal tubule and duct cells secrete other materials (wastes, drugs, excess ions) into the fluid (removes a substance from the blood)
29
flow of fluid in a cortical nephron vs juxtamedullary nephron
glomerular (Bowman's) capsule
proximal convoluted tubule
descending limb of nephron loop
ascending limb of nephron loop
distal convoluted tubule (drains into collecting duct)
vs
same except thin ascending then thick ascending
30
reabsorption vs absorption
reabsorption refers to the return of substances to the bloodstream
absorption means entry of new substances into the body (in GI tract)
31
filtration fraction
fraction of blood plasma in the afferent arterioles of the kidneys that becomes glomerular filtrate
0.16–0.20
32
The fluid that enters the capsular space is called the ______ _______
glomerular filtrate
33
filtration (endothelial–capsular) membrane
Together, the glomerular capillaries and the podocytes, which completely encircle the capillaries, form a leaky barrier known as the filtration (endothelial–capsular) membrane. This sandwich-like assembly permits filtration of water and small solutes but prevents filtration of most plasma proteins and blood cells
34
Substances filtered from the blood cross three filtration barriers—a _______ _______ _____, the _______ _____, and a ______ ____ formed by a ______
glomerular endothelial cell
basement membrane
filtration slit
podocyte
35
why are glomerular cells leaky
fenestrations permit all solutes except blood cells to pass
mesangial cells are contractile cells that when relaxed allow for greater filtration
36
what does the fenestrations, basement membrane, and slit membrane prevent filtration of
Fenestration (pore) of glomerular endothelial cell: prevents filtration of blood cells but allows all components of blood plasma to pass through
Basement membrane of glomerulus: prevents filtration of larger proteins
Slit membrane between pedicels: prevents filtration of medium-sized proteins
37
3 reasons blood filtration is higher in glomerular capsule than in any other blood capillaries
large SA: When mesangial cells are relaxed, surface area is maximal, and glomerular filtration is very high
filtration membrane is thin and porous: 0.1mm thick many fenestrations
Glomerular capillary blood pressure is high: afferent bigger than efferent=high resistance of blood leaving
38
glomerular pressure (3) and net filtration pressure
1. glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (GBHP): BP in glomerular capillaries; 55mmHg; promotes filtration by forcing water and solutes in blood plasma through the filtration membrane
2. Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP):
hydrostatic pressure exerted against the filtration membrane by fluid already in the capsular space and renal tubule. Opposes filtration and
represents a “back pressure” of about 15 mmHg
3. Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP): due to presence of proteins; opposes filtration by 30 mmHg
NFP = 10mmHg
39
glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
amount of filtrate formed in all renal corpuscles of both kidneys each minute
males: 125 mL/min,
females: 105 mL/min
180L/day
40
myogenic mechanism
occurs when stretching triggers contraction of smooth muscle cells in the walls of afferent arterioles
BP rises = GFR rises = contraction = narrowing = less blood flow = GFR back to normal
41
tubuloglomerular feedback
part of the renal tubules—the macula densa—provides feedback to the
glomerulus
GFR increases -> macula densa cells of JGA detect increased delivery of NA, CL, water ->JGA decrease NO release ->afferent arterioles constrict -> lower GFR
42
neural regulation of GFR (stimulus, mechanism, effect)
stimulus: Increase in activity level of renal sympathetic nerves releases
norepinephrine
mechanism: Constriction of afferent arterioles through activation of α1 receptors and increased release of renin
result: decrease
43
angiotensin II regulation of GFR (stimulus, mechanism, effect)
S: decreased BV/BP=angtiotensin II released
M: constriction of afferent and efferent arterioles
E: decrease
44
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) regulation of GFR (stimulus, mechanism, effect)
S: stretching of atria of heart stimulates secretion of ANP
M: Relaxation of mesangial cells in glomerulus increases capillary surface area available for filtration
E: increases
45
Epithelial cells all along the renal tubule and duct carry out reabsorption, but ________ _______ _____ cells make the largest contribution
proximal convoluted tubule
46
2 important outcomes of tubular secretion
secretion of H+ helps control blood pH
secretion of other substances helps eliminate them in the urine
47
apical membrane vs basolateral membrane of renal tubule
contacts tubular fluid vs contacts interstitial fluid at base/sides of cell
48
paracellular reabsorption
up to 50% of water and solutes in tubular fluid return to the bloodstream by moving between tubule cells
49
transcellular reabsorption
solutes and water in tubular fluid return to the bloodstream by
passing through a tubule cell
(pass through apical membrane to cytosol to basolateral membrane)
50
The _____ of sodium–potassium
pumps in the _______ membrane ensures that reabsorption of Na+ is a
one-way process.
absence
apical (contacts tubular fluid)
51
in ______ active transport the energy derived from hydrolysis of ____ is used to “pump” a substance across a membrane; the sodium–potassium pump is one such pump.
In ________ active transport the energy stored in an ion’s ____________ gradient, drives another substance across a membrane.
primary
ATP
secondary
electrochemical
52
_________ are membrane proteins that move two or more substances in the same direction across a membrane. _________ move two or more substances in opposite directions across a membrane. Each transporter type has an upper limit on how fast it can work. This limit, called the
________ ________ (Tm), is measured in mg/min.
symporters
antiporters
transport maximum
53
obligatory vs facultative water reabsorption (what,where,percentage)
water reabsorbed with solutes in tubular fluids; in proximal convoluted tubule/descending limb of nephron loop; 90%
vs
facultative=capable of adapting to a need, regulated by ADH; in collecting ducts; 10%
54
The filtered fluid becomes tubular fluid once it enters the ______ _______ ______
proximal convoluted tubule
55
The fluid that drains from papillary ducts into the renal pelvis is ______
urine
56
Normally, filtered glucose, amino acids, lactic acid, water-soluble vitamins, and other nutrients are completely reabsorbed in the first half of the proximal convoluted tubule by several types of ____ _______ located in the ____ _____
Na+ symporters
apical membrane
57
Na+–glucose symporter is in the _____ membrane of a cell in the PCT. Two Na+ and a molecule of glucose attach to the symporter protein, which carries
them from the ______ _____ into the _____ _____. The glucose molecules then exit the ______ ______ via facilitated diffusion and they diffuse into _________ capillaries.
apical
tubular fluid
tubule cell
basolateral membrane
peritubular
58
the Na+–H+ antiporters carry filtered Na+ down its concentration gradient into a ____ cell as H+ is moved from the ____ into the ______, causing Na+ to be reabsorbed into _____ and H+ to be secreted into _____ ______
PCT
cytosol
lumen
blood
tubular fluid
59
In other words, reabsorption of the solutes creates an ______ gradient that promotes the reabsorption of water via osmosis
osmotic
60
Cells lining the _____ and the ______ ____ of the nephron loop are especially permeable to water because they have many molecules of
________. This integral protein in the ______ ______ is a water channel that greatly increases the rate of water
movement across the apical and basolateral membranes
PCT
descending limb
aquaporin-1
plasma membrane
61
Diffusion of negatively charged Cl− into _____ _____ via the ________ route makes the interstitial fluid electrically more _______ than the tubular fluid. This _______ promotes passive
paracellular reabsorption of cations, such as K+, Ca2+, and Mg2
interstitial fluid
paracellular
negative
negativity
62
Because all of the proximal convoluted tubules reabsorb about ____ of the filtered water (about __ mL/min), fluid enters the nephron loop, at a rate of __-__ mL/min. The chemical composition of the tubular fluid now is quite different from that of glomerular filtrate because _____, ______, and other nutrients are no longer present.
65%
80
40-45
glucose
amino acids
63
In the nephron loop, for the first time, reabsorption of ____ via osmosis is not automatically coupled to reabsorption of ______ ______ because part of the nephron loop is relatively _________ to water. The nephron loop thus sets the stage for _______ regulation of both the ______ and ______ of body fluids
water
filtered solutes
impermeable
independent
volume
osmolarity
64
The _____ membranes of cells in the ____ ascending limb of the nephron loop have Na+–K+–2Cl− symporters that simultaneously reclaim ___ Na+, ___ K+, and ___ Cl− from the fluid in the tubular lumen. Because many K+ ______ channels are present in the ____ membrane, most K+ brought in
by the symporters moves down its concentration gradient back into
the tubular fluid. Thus, the main effect of the Na+−K+−2Cl− symporters is reabsorption of ___ and ___
apical
thick
one
one
two
leakage
apical
Na+
Cl-
65
Although about ___ of the filtered water is reabsorbed in the descending limb of the nephron loop, little or no water is reabsorbed in the ascending limb because the apical membranes are virtually ________ to water. Because ions but not water molecules are reabsorbed, the ______ of the tubular fluid ________ progressively as fluid flows toward the end of the ascending limb
15%
impermeable
osmolarity
decreases
66
Fluid enters the distal convoluted tubules at a rate of about __ mL/min because ___ of the filtered water has now been ______. The ____ DCT has
Na+–Cl− symporters in the ____ membranes to ______ Na+ and Cl−
25
80%
reabsorbed
early
apical
reabsorb
67
The early DCT also is a major site where __________ _______ stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
68
By the time fluid reaches the end of the distal convoluted tubule, ____-____
of the filtered solutes and water have returned to the bloodstream.
90-95%
69
The late DCT and collecting duct have principal cells that reabsorb ___ and secrete ___. These cells also have receptors for _______ and ____. The intercalated cells reabsorb ______ and
secrete ____, thereby playing a role in blood ___ regulation. In addition,
the intercalated cells reabsorb __
Na+
K+
aldosterone
ADH
HCO3−
H+
pH
K+
70
what is different about the way Na+ passes apical membrane in the late DCT compared to the rest of the nephron
late DCT: via Na+ leakage channels
rest: symporters/antiporters
71
Five hormones affect the extent of Na+, Ca2+, and water reabsorption as well as K+ secretion by the renal tubules. What are these hormones
angiotensin II
aldosterone
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
72
antidiuretic hormone AKA
vasopressin
73
ADH released by
posterior pituitary
74
How does ADH increase water reabsorption
The osmolarity of plasma and interstitial fluid (control) increases
osmoreceptors (receptors) in hypothalamus detect and send NI (input) to hypothalamus (CC) and post pituitary (CC)
increase release of ADH (output)
principal cells (effectors) become more permeable=increase facultative water absorption
75
The degree of _______ water reabsorption caused by ADH in the late _____ _____ and _______ _______ depends on whether the body is normally hydrated, dehydrated, or overhydrated.
facultative
distal tubule
collecting duct
76
normal hydration vs dehydration vs overhydration in amount of water reabsorbed and where
65% in proximal tubule+15% in nephron loop+19% in late distal tubule/collecting duct=99%
vs
65% in proximal tubule+15% in nephron loop+19.8% in late distal tubule/collecting duct=99.8%
vs
65% in proximal tubule+15% in nephron loop+0% in late distal tubule/collecting duct=80%
77
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (stimulus, mechanism, effect on tubular reabsorption/secretion)
S: stretching of atria=ANP secreted
M: suppresses Na+/water reabsorption in proximal tubule/collecting duct, inhibits aldosterone/ADH secretion
E: natriuresis, diuresis, decrease BV/BP
78
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
(stimulus, mechanism, effect on tubular reabsorption/secretion)
S: decreased plasma Ca+=PTH secretion
M: opens Ca+ channels in apical of early distal tubule
E: increases Ca+ reabsorption
79
Glomerular filtrate has the same ratio of water and solute particles as blood; its osmolarity is about ____ mOsm/liter. As previously noted, fluid leaving the ___ is still isotonic to plasma. When dilute urine is being formed, the osmolarity of the fluid in the tubular lumen _____ as it flows down the descending limb of the nephron loop, _______ as it flows up the ascending limb, and _______ still more as it flows through the rest of the nephron and collecting duct
300
PCT
increases
decreases
decreases
80
production of dilute urine (5 things+end number osmolarity)
1. osmolarity of interstial fluid of renal medulla increases=more water reabsorbed=fluid in lumen is more concentrated (up to 900)
2. cells lining thick ascending limb actively reabsorb K+, Na+, Cl-=diffuse into vasa recta
3. water permeability low here=no water reabsorption (solutes leave, water doesn't=osmolarity drops to 150)
4. In early DCT, not permeable+not regulated by ADH=solutes leave but water doesn't
5. in late DCT, principal cells are impermeable when ADH low=more dilute
in renal pelvis=65-70 mOsm/liter
81
two factors building/maintaining osmotic gradient
1. differences in solute and water permeability and reabsorption in different sections of the long nephron loops and the collecting ducts
2. the countercurrent flow of fluid through tube-shaped structures in
the renal medulla (ex. flow of tubular fluid through the descending and ascending limbs of the nephron loop)
82
countercurrent multiplication def/involves
process by which a progressively increasing osmotic gradient is formed in the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla as a result of countercurrent flow
involves long loops of juxtamedullary nephrons
83
production of concentrated urine (4 and end number osmolarity)
1. Symporters in thick ascending limb cells of the NL cause a buildup of Na+ and Cl− in the renal medulla
2. Countercurrent flow through the descending and ascending
limbs of the NL establishes an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla
3. Cells in the collecting ducts reabsorb more water and urea due to ADH
4. Urea recycling causes a buildup of urea in the renal medulla (impermeable to urea in thick ascending limb)
urine=1200 mOsm/liter
84
countercurrent exchange def
process by which solutes and water are passively exchanged between the blood of the vasa recta and interstitial fluid of the renal medulla as a result of countercurrent flow
85
Since countercurrent flow between the descending and ascending limbs of the vasa recta allows for exchange of solutes and water between the blood and interstitial fluid of the renal medulla, the vasa recta is said to function as a ___________ __________
countercurrent exchanger
86
The long nephron loop ________ the osmotic gradient in the renal medulla by countercurrent multiplication, but the vasa recta ______ the osmotic gradient in the renal medulla by
countercurrent exchange.
establishes
maintains
87
Water accounts for about ____ of the total volume of urine. The remaining 5% consists of (3)
95%
electrolytes, solutes derived from cellular metabolism, and exogenous substances such as drugs
88
volume of urine a day
1-2 liters
89
turbitity of urine
transparent at first, cloudy after sitting
90
odor of urine
mildly aromatic, diabetes=fruity due to ketone bodies
91
pH of urine
4.6-8.0 normal 6.0
high protein=acidic, vegetarian=alkaline
92
specific gravity (density) of urine
1.001-1.035, higher concentration of solutes=higher SG
93
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test
measures the blood nitrogen that is part of the urea resulting from catabolism and deamination of amino acid
GFR decreases=BUN increases
94
measure of plasma creatinine
results from catabolism of creatine phosphate in skeletal muscle
remain steady as creatinine excretion in the urine=its discharge from muscle. A creatinine level
above 1.5 mg/dL (135 mmol/liter)=poor renal function.
95
albuminuria
increase in permeability of filtration membranes due to injury or disease, increased blood pressure, or
irritation of kidney cells by substances such as bacterial toxins, ether, or heavy metals
96
glucosuria (usually/occasionally)
usually indicates diabetes mellitus
sometimes stress=more epinephrine=s breakdown of glycogen/liberation of glucose
97
hematuria
indicates pathological condition
acute inflammation of urinary organs due to disease or irritation from kidney stones
also tumors, trauma, kidney disease, contamination of sample by menstruation
98
ketonuria
diabetes mellitus, anorexia, starvation, not enough carbs
99
urobilinogenuria
(breakdown of hemoglobin)
hemolytic or pernicious anemia, infectious hepatitis, biliary obstruction, jaundice, cirrhosis, congestive heart failure, or infectious mononucleosis
100
renal plasma clearance
more useful than BUN or plasma creatine
the volume of blood that is “cleaned” or cleared of a substance per unit of time, usually expressed in units of mL/min
101
clearance of glucose normally is ____ because it is completely _______; therefore, glucose is not _______ at all.
zero
reabsorbed
excreted
102
why is knowing a drug's clearance important
essential for determining the correct dosage.
If clearance is high (one example is penicillin), then the dosage must also be high, and the drug must be given several times a day to maintain an adequate therapeutic level in the
blood
103
The following equation is used to calculate clearance
Renal plasma clearance of substance S = (U × V)/P
U: concentration in urine mg/mL
P: concentration in plasma
V: urine flow rate mL/min
104
clearance of a solute depends on the three basic processes of a nephron
glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion
105
inulin (not insulin) ____ passes the filter, it is not _______, and it is not _______. Typically, the clearance of inulin is about ______, which equals the ___.
easily
reabsorbed
secreted
125mL/min
GFR
106
Inulin is ___ produced by the body and it must be infused _______ while clearance measurements are being determined. Measuring the
creatinine clearance is an easier way to assess the GFR because creatinine is a substance that is _____ produced by the body as an end product of muscle metabolism. Once creatinine is filtered, it is not ________, and is ______ only to a very small extent. Because
there is a small amount of creatinine secretion, the creatinine clearance is only a close estimate of the GFR and is not as accurate as using the inulin clearance. The creatinine clearance is normally about _______
not
continuously
naturally
reabsorbed
secreted
120–140 mL/m
107
para-aminohippuric acid (PAH) clearance shows
After PAH is administered intravenously, it is filtered and secreted in a single pass through the kidneys. Thus, the clearance of PAH is used to
measure renal plasma flow
108
renal plasma flow
the amount of plasma that passes
through the kidneys in one minute
Typically, the renal plasma flow is
650 mL/minute, which is about 55% of the renal blood flow (1200 mL per/min)
109
3 layers of ureters
mucosa: transitional epithelium plus underlying lamina propria (able to stretch and mucus separates cells from urine)
muscularis: inner long, outer circular (opp GI) distal 1/3 has outer long too; function=peristalsis
adventita: aerolar CT with BV, LV, nerves; function=anchors ureters
110
Urinary bladder capacity averages ____
700-800 mL
111
trigone contains what 2 openings
two urethral openings on post corners and internal urethral orifice in anterior corner
112
three layers of uterine wall (3 plus one extra thing)
mucosa: transitional epithelium plus underlying lamina propria, has rugae (folds)
muscularis (detrusor muscle): inner/outer long middle circular, forms in/external urethral sphincter
adventita: continuous with ureters
serosa: visceral peritoneum on superior surface
113
micturition
urination
114
When the volume of urine in the urinary bladder exceeds _____, pressure within the bladder increases considerably, and ______ _____ in its wall transmit nerve impulses into the _____ _____. These impulses propagate to the ______ center in _____ spinal cord segments ___ and ___ and trigger a _____ reflex called the micturition reflex
200-400 mL
stretch receptors
spinal cord
micturition
sacral
S2
S3
spinal
115
Through learned control of the ______ urethral sphincter muscle and certain muscles of the _____ ____, the _____ _____ can initiate micturition or delay its occurrence for a limited period
external
pelvic floor
cerebral cortex
116
male urethra 3 regions (name, where, histology)
1. prostatic urethra: through prostate, transitional epi; smooth circular
2.intermediate urethra: through peritoneum; stratified/pseudostratified columnar epi; skeletal circular
3. spongy urethra: through penis; stratified/pseudostratified columnar epi except external urethral orifice is nonkeratinized stratified squamous epi
117
prostatic urethra openings
1. duct that transports secretions from the prostate
2. the seminal vesicle and ducts (vas) deferens that deliver sperm
118
The openings of the ducts of the bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands empty into and function
spongy urethra, releases substance that neutralizes pH prior to ejaculation + secrete mucus for lubrication
119
Throughout the urethra, but especially in the ______ urethra, the openings of the ducts of ______ ______ or Littré glands discharge mucus during sexual arousal and ejaculation
spongy
urethral glands
120
walls of female urethra
deep mucosa: epithelium + lamina propria
near bladder: transitional epi
between: pseudo/stratified columnar
near external: non keratinized stratified squamous
superficial muscularis: circular SM continuous with bladder
121
kidney location
retroperitoneal between last thoracic and 3rd lumbar, lie on ribs 11/12
122
kidneys other functions (not urinary related) (3)
synthesize glucose
release erythropoietin
participate in vitamin D synthesis
123
waste management in other body systems (6 plus descriptions)
1. buffer systems: bind excessive H+, eliminated when full
2. blood: pickup and delivery services
3. liver: primary metabolic recycling (AA->glucose->fatty acids, toxic->non toxic)
4. lungs: excrete CO2, heat, water vapor
5. sudoriferous glands: excrete heat, water, and CO2, salts, urea
6. GI tract: excretes solid, undigested foods; wastes; some CO2; water; salts; and heat
124
Sodium ions are reabsorbed throughout the _______ membrane via ______ active transport
basolateral
primary
