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HAN 202 > Chapter 24 Nutrition and Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 24 Nutrition and Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Hormones that directly activate genes are classified as ______

A
  • amino acid based
  • water soluble
  • lipid soluble
  • G proteins
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2
Q

Oxytocin is produced here

A
  • anterior pituitary gland
  • posterior pituitary gland
  • hypothalamus
  • ovary
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3
Q

what is the effect of PTH

A
  • increase osteoclast activity
  • increase Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidney
  • increase Ca2+ absorption in the instestine
  • all of the above
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4
Q

which hormone controls the rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation

A
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • insulin
  • T3/T4
  • cortisol
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5
Q

nutrient

A

a substance in food that promotes normal growth, maintenance, and repair

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6
Q

major nutrients

A

-carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

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7
Q

other nutrients

A
  • vitamins and minerals (water too)

- 45 essential nutrients the body cannot make

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8
Q

western diet

A
  • high in:
  • meat
  • sugar
  • vegetable oil
  • white flour
  • 60% of diet is fast food and processed food
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9
Q

carbohydrates

A
  • main source of energy
  • starch- (complex carbohydrates) in grains and vegetables - polysaccharides
  • sugars in fruits, sugarcane, sugar beets, honey and milk - mono and disaccharides
  • fiber (cellulose)
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10
Q

fiber (cellulose)

A
  • insoluble- cellulose in vegetables -> provides roughage and maintains health of colon and feeds useful bacteria in colon
  • soluble fiber- pectin (found in cell wall of plants) -> in apples and citrus fruits; reduces blood cholesterol levels
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11
Q

uses for carbohydrates

A
  • glucose is the fuel used by cells to make ATP
  • neurons (nervous system) and RBC -> glucose
  • if run low can depress brain function (diabetic coma)
  • excess glucose is converted to glycogen (liver/skeletal muscles) or fat and stored
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12
Q

lipids

A
  • triglycerides (most abundant lipid)
  • cholesterol- in egg yolk, meats, organ meats, shellfish, and milk products
  • liver produces about 85% of blood cholesterol
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13
Q

triglycerides

A
  • most abundant
  • saturated fats- in meat, dairy food, and tropical oils
  • unsaturated fats- in seed, nuts, olive oil, and most vegetable oilss
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14
Q

saturated vs unsaturated fats

A
  • saturated fats- usually solid at room temperature (butter), only single bonds between carbon atoms
  • unsaturated fats- at least one double bond, usually liquids at room temperature (vegetable oils)
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15
Q

lipids- essential fatty acids

A
  • omega-3 and omega-6
  • found in most vegetable oils
  • must be ingested because liver cannot synthesize
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16
Q

uses of lipids

A
  • absorption- fat-soluble vitamins
  • fuel- of hepatocytes and skeletal muscle (triglycerides)
  • cell membranes and myelin sheaths (fatty covering over nerves)
  • fatty deposits (adipose tissue)- protection of body organs, insulation, concentrated source of energy
  • regulatory function of PROSTAGLANDINS- control BP, smooth MM contractions, inflammation
  • function of cholesterol (not sued for energy)- stabilizes plasma membranes and precursor of bile salts and steroid hormones
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17
Q

uses for proteins

A
  • structural materials- keratin, collagen, elastin, muscle proteins
  • most functional molecules- enzymes, some hormones
  • nitrogen balance- rate of protein synthesis = rate of breakdown
  • hormonal controls- anabolic hormones (GH, sex hormones) accelerate protein synthesis
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18
Q

dietary sources of proteins

A
  • animal products; eggs, milk, fish, and most meats contain complete proteins
  • legumes (beans/peas) and cereals together contain all essential amino acids
  • body can only produce 12/20 amino acids, the other 8 are the essential amino acids, need to be present in diet
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19
Q

vitamins

A
  • organic compounds
  • crucial in helping the body use nutrients
  • most function as coenzymes
  • vitamins D (skin), some B, and K are synthesized in the body (intestinal bacteria)
  • if carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are the fuel of a car, vitamins are the ignition
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20
Q

two types of vitamins based on solubility

A
    1. water soluble vitamins:
  • B complex and C are absorbed with water
  • not stored in the body, need to be ingested daily
    1. fat-soluble vitamins:
  • A, D, E, and K are absorbed with lipid digestion products
  • stored in the body, except for vitamin K
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21
Q

minerals

A
  • 7 inorganic nutrients required in moderate amounts
  • calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium
  • others required in trace amounts
  • work with nutrients to ensure proper body functioning
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22
Q

examples of minerals

A
  • calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium salts -> harden bone
  • iron is essential for oxygen binding to hemoglobin
  • iodine is necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis
  • sodium and chloride are major electrolytes in the blood
  • large amounts of Na present in processed food or sprinkled on food may contribute to fluid retention and high BP
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23
Q

what is a good source of unsaturated fats

A
  • nuts*
  • meats
  • margarine
  • dairy
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24
Q

proteins are used primarily to build all of the following except

A
  • collagen
  • enzymes
  • cell membrane* -> lipids
  • hormones
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25
Q

metabolism

A

-biochemical reactions inside cells involving nutrients

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26
Q

two types of metabolic reactions

A
  • anabolism- synthesis of large molecules from small ones

- catabolism- hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones -> using water to breakdown

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27
Q

cellular respiration

A
  • catabolism of food fuels and capture of energy to form ATP in cells
  • energy currency
  • ATP must be continually recycled
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28
Q

3 stages of metabolism

A
    1. digestion, absorption and transport to tissues
    1. cellular processing (in cytoplasm) -> anabolism (synthesis) of lipids, proteins, and glycogen) OR catabolism (glycolysis) into intermediates
    1. oxidative (mitochondrial) breakdown of intermediates into CO2, water, and ATP
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29
Q

oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions

A
  • transfer of electrons from one molecules to another
  • oxidation- gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen ion (loss of electron)
  • oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions:
  • oxidized substances lose electrons and energy
  • reduced substances gain electrons and energy
  • coenzymes act as hydrogen (or electron) acceptors
  • nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
  • flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
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30
Q

ATP synthesis

A
  1. substate-level phosphorylation (fast, low output) -> 1. glycolysis 2. kreb (citric acid) cycle
  2. oxidative phosphorylation (slow, high output):
    - carried out by electron transport proteins
    - nutrient energy is used to create H+ gradient across mitochondrial membrane
    - H+ flows through ATP synthase
    - energy is captured and attaches phosphate groups to ADP
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31
Q

carbohydrate metabolism

A
  • oxidation of glucose - C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6H2O + 6CO2 + 32 ATP + heat
  • glucose is catabolized in three pathways
    1. glycolysis
    1. krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
    1. electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
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32
Q

cellular respiration mechanism

A
  • during glycolysis, each glucose molecule is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid in the cytosol
  • pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrial matrix -> KREBS -> decomposes it to CO2
  • during glycolysis and the krebs cycle small amounts of ATP are formed by substrate level phosphorylation
  • energy rich electrons picked up by coenzymes are transferred to the electron transport chain, built into the cristae membrane
  • ETC carries out oxidative phosphorylation which accounts for most of the ATP
  • about 30 ATP product
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33
Q

glycolysis

A
  • 10 step pathway
  • high speed reaction
  • anaerobic
  • only produces 5% of total ATP
  • occurs in the cytosol
  • glucose -> 2 pyruvic acid molecules (6C to two 3C)
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34
Q

final products of glycolysis

A
  • 2 pyruvic acid -> converted to lactic acid if O2 not readily available
  • if O2 is available it enters the aerobic pathways
  • 2 NADH to electron transport
  • net gain of 2 ATP

IN: glucose
OUT: 2 ATP (net), 2 NADH, 2 pyruvic acid

35
Q

lactic acid

A
  • if not enough oxygen, NADH returns its H to pyruvic acid which forms lactic acid
  • will allow working muscles to continue at high rates for 1-3 minutes
  • lactic acid not responsible for post exercise soreness
  • is responsible for muscle burn
36
Q

Krebs (citric acid) cycle

A
  • occurs in mitochondrial matrix
  • fueled by pyruvic acid and fatty acids
  • pyruvic acid is broken down into CO2 in a series of energy extracting reactions
  • breakdown products of fats and proteins can also enter the cycle
  • primary roles is to generate electrons (H)
37
Q

kreb (citric acid) cycle

A
  • transitional phase- 2 NADH* and 2 CO2
  • kreb cycle:
  • 2 ATP
  • 4 CO2
  • 6 NADH*
  • 2 FADH*
    • electron transport
38
Q

electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • the part of metabolism that directly uses oxygen
  • subtracts NADH + H+ and FADH2 deliver hydrogen atoms
  • hydrogen atoms are split into H+ and electrons
  • electrons are shuttled along the inner mitochondrial membrane, losing energy at each step
  • released energy is used to pump H+ into the intermembrane space
  • produces about 28 ATP
39
Q

ETC

A

electrons are shuttled along the inner mitochondrial membrane from one complex to the next, losing energy with each transfer

  • at the end combine with O2 to form water
  • cyanide poisoning reacts with final cytochrome preventing electron transfer preventing ATP formation
40
Q

the primary function of cellular respiration is ____

A
  • to synthesize proteins
  • to store energy
  • to produce ATP*
  • to provide oxygen to the cells
41
Q

which of the following processes is likely to occur in the skeletal muscle cells during sprinting

A
  • glycolysis
  • oxidative phosphorylation
  • the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
  • lactic acid oxidation to pyruvic acid*
42
Q

glycogenesis

A
  • glycogen formation when glucose supplies exceed need for ATP synthesis
  • mostly in liver and skeletal muscle
43
Q

glycogenolysis

A
  • glycogen breakdown in response to low blood glucose

- unable to store ATP, so glucose needs to be stored for later use

44
Q

atheletes and carbohydrates

A
  • complex carbohydrates -> more glycogen storage in muscle; more effective than high protein meal for intense muscle acitivty
  • carbo loading:
  • carbohydrate rich diet for 3-4 days
  • decreased activity -> muscles store more glycogen -> improved performance and endurance
45
Q

gluconeogenesis

A
  • glucose formation from noncarbohydrate (glycerol and amino acid) molecules
  • mainly in the liver
  • protects against damaging effects of hypoglycemia - especially important for nervous system
46
Q

lipid metabolism

A
  • fat catabolism yields 9 kcal per gram (vs 4 kcal per gram of carbohydrate or protein)
  • most concentrated source of energy
  • blood glucose- energy for a few minutes
  • glycogen stores- energy for a day
  • lipid stores- 30-40 days
  • lipolysis “fat splitting” into fatty acids and glycerol
  • glucose C6H12O6 produces 32 ATP
  • common fat C57H110O6 produces 463 ATP
  • only triglycerides are routinely oxidized for energy
  • the 2 building blocks are oxidized separately
  • glycerol pathway- glycerol enters into glycolysis
  • fatty acid pathway- fatty acids enter the kreb (citric acid) cycle
47
Q

lipogenesis

A
  • triglycerides synthesis occurs when cellular ATP and glucose levels are high
  • glucose is easily converted into fat
  • stored in subcutaneous or adipose tissues
  • even with a low fat diet, carbohydrate intake can provide raw material to make triglycerides
48
Q

lipolysis

A
  • the reverse of lipogenesis
  • stores fat- > glycerol and fatty acids for fuel
  • preferred by liver, cardiac muscle, resting skeletal muscle
  • “fat burns in a carbohydrate flame”
  • without it, acetyl CoA is converted by ketogenesis in the liver into ketone bodies (ketones)
49
Q

homeostatic imbalance

A
  • accumulation of ketones in blood -> ketosis
  • ketones acidic -> metabolic acidosis
  • low blood pH, can lead to coma/death
  • breathing rapid to release CO2 to raise pH
  • common in starvation, unwise dieting, diabetes mellitus
  • ketone bodies excreted in urine
50
Q

glycerol is metabolized at what stage of cellular respiration

A
  • glycolysis*
  • acetyl CoA
  • kreb (citric acid) cycle
  • oxidative phosphorylation
51
Q

protein metabolism

A
  • proteins deteriorate, so continually broken down and replaced
  • amino acids recycled -> new proteins or different compound
  • protein not stored in body
  • when dietary protein in excess, amino acids are oxidized for energy OR converted to fat for storage
52
Q

oxidation of amino acids

A
  • to use protein as fuel
  • first deaminated (NH2 removed) then its converted to:
  • pyruvic acid
  • keto acid intermediate of krebs cycle
  • events include transamination, oxidative deamination, and keto acid modification
  • deamination of AA is necessary for the carbon skeleton to enter catabolic pathways
  • the nitrogenous compounds are metabolic waste products
53
Q

oxidation of amino acid mechanism

A
  • transamination- an amine group is switched from an amino acid to a keta acid
  • oxidative deamination- the amine group of glutamic acid is removed as ammonia and combined with CO2 to form urea
  • keto acid modification- the keto acids formed during transamination are altered so they can easily enter the krebs cycle pathways
  • waste substance is urea
54
Q

protein synthesis

A
  • amino acids most important anabolic nutrients -> form all proteins; bulk of functional molecules
  • hormonally controlled
  • requires complete set of amino acids
  • essential amino acids required in diet
55
Q

catabolic-anabolic steady state of the body

A
  • absorptive state and postabsorptive state
  • absorptive state (fed state)- lasts 4 hours after eating begins; absorption of nutrients occurring
  • postabsorptive state (fasting state)- morning (before breakfast), later afternoon (before dinner), all night; GI tract empty; energy sources supplied by breakdown of reserves
  • primary goal during postabsorptive state is to maintain blood glucose levels
56
Q

absorptive state

A

-anabolism exceeds catabolism

57
Q

absorptive state: carbohydrates

A
  • glucose major cellular energy fuel

- glucose converted in liver to glycogen or fat

58
Q

absorptive state: triglycerides

A
  • most glycerol and fatty acids converted to triglycerides for storage
  • triglycerides are sued by adipose tissue, skeletal and cardiac muscle cells and liver cells as primary energy source
59
Q

absorptive state: amino acids

A
  • most amino acids used in protein synthesis

- excess deaminated -> stored as fat or used for ATP

60
Q

absorptive state: hormonal control

A
  • absorptive state primarily controlled by insulin

- insulin secretion stimulated by elevated blood levels of glucose and amino acids

61
Q

insulin effects on metabolism

A
  • insulin, a hypoglycemic hormone
  • insulin effects:
  • moves glucose into muscle and adipose cells (brain and liver take up glucose without insulin)
  • glucose oxidation for energy
  • glycogen and triglyceride formation
  • active transport of amino acids into tissue cells
  • protein synthesis
  • inhibits glucose release from liver, and gluconeogenesis
62
Q

diabetes mellitus

A
  • inadequate insulin production or abnormal insulin receptors
  • glucose unavailable to most body cells
  • blood glucose levels high
  • glucose lost in urine
  • fats and proteins used for energy
  • metabolic acidosis, protein wasting, weight loss
63
Q

post absorptive state

A
  • GI tract empty
  • catabolism of fat, glycogen, and proteins exceeds anabolism
  • goal- maintain blood glucose between meals
  • makes glucose available to blood
  • promotes use of fats for energy (glucose sparing- save glucose for organs that need it most)
  • during starvation , the body will utilize glycogen and fat stores first, then move to muscle protein first before other tissues
  • the heart is primarily muscle protein and when severely catabolized the result is death
64
Q

sources of blood glucose

A
  • glycogenolysis in liver and skeletal muscle
  • lipolysis in adipose tissues and liver
  • glycerol used for gluconeogenesis in liver
  • catabolism of cellular protein- major source during prolonged fasting
  • amount of fat in body determines how long can survive without food
65
Q

post absorptive state: hormonal and neural controls

A
  • glucagon- hyperglycemic hormone
  • glucagon release is stimulated by declining blood glucose and rising amino acids levels
  • SNS interacts with hormones to control event in post absorptive state (epinephrine)
66
Q

effects of glucagon

A
  • glucagon promotes:
  • glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver
  • lipolysis in adipose tissue -> fatty acids and glycerol to blood
67
Q

the process whereby excess glucose is stored in cells is called _____

A
  • glycogenesis*
  • glycogenolysis
  • gluconeogenesis
  • glycolysis
68
Q

hyperglycemic hormones include glucagon and ____

A
  • insulin*
  • epinephrine
  • ADH
  • aldosterone
69
Q

what is the true function of molecular oxygen acquired by the lungs

A
  • O2 catalyzes the breaking of bonds in the glucose molecule
  • O2 catalyzes the synthesis of ATP
  • O2 serves as the final electron acceptor for the oxidation of food molecules
  • O2 drives energy dependent processes in our cells
70
Q

hepatocytes

A
  • about 500 metabolic functions
  • process nearly every class of nutrient
  • play major role in regulating plasma cholesterol levels
  • store vitamins and minerals
  • metabolize alcohol, drugs, hormones, and bilirubin
  • mechanical contraptions can stand in our heart, lungs, or kidney, but nothing can do the work of the liver
71
Q

postabsorptive state

A
  • proteins -> amino acids
  • glycogen -> glucose
  • triglycerides -> glycerol and fatty acids
  • glucose and fatty acids and ketones are the major energy fuels
  • amino acids are converted to glucose in the liver
  • amino acids -> keto acids -> glucose
72
Q

cholesterol

A
  • structural basis of bile salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D
  • major component of plasma membranes
  • 15% of blood cholesterol ingested; rest made in body, primarily liver
  • lost from body when catabolized or secreted in bile salts
  • not used as an energy source!
73
Q

lipoproteins

A
  • transport water-insoluble cholesterol and triglycerides in blood
  • higher percentage of lipids -> lower density, hence VLDLs - very low-density lipoproteins
  • LDLs- low density
  • HDLs- high density
74
Q

VLDLs

A

-transport triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissues (mostly adipose)

75
Q

LDLs

A
  • bad cholesterol

- transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues for membranes, storage, or hormonal synthesis

76
Q

HDLs

A
  • good cholesterol
  • transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver to be broken down and secreted into bile
  • also provide cholesterol to steroid producing organs
77
Q

plasma cholesterol levels

A
  • ratio of saturated/unsaturated fatty acids affects blood cholesterol levels
  • saturated fatty acids stimulate liver synthesis of cholesterol and inhibit cholesterol excretion from body
  • unsaturated fatty acids enhance excretion of cholesterol and enhance cholesterol catabolism to bile salts
  • trans fats (partially hydrogenated vegetable oil)- healthy oils forced to be solids (margarine)
  • trans fats- increased LDLs and reduce HDLs
78
Q

unsaturated omega-3 fatty acids

A
  • found in cold water fish
  • plasma cholesterol
  • lower proportions of saturated fats and cholesterol
  • make platelets less sticky -> help prevent spontaneous clotting
  • lower blood pressure
79
Q

non dietary factors affecting cholesterol

A
  • stress and cigarette smoking lower HDL levels
  • aerobic exercise and estrogen increase HDL levels and decrease LDL levels
  • body shape:
  • apple- fat carried on upper body correlated with high cholesterol and LDL levels
  • pear- fat carried on hips and thighs correlated with lower cholesterol and LDL levels
80
Q

metabolic syndrome

A
  • 5 risk factors that increase the chance of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes
  • increased waist circumference
  • increase BP
  • increase blood glucose
  • increase blood triglycerides
  • decreased blood HDL cholesterol
81
Q

obesity

A
  • body mass index (BMI) = wt x 705/height in inches^2
  • weight= 133 ht = 5’5 -> 65”
  • BMI= 133 x 705/65^2 = 22.2
  • considered overweight if BMI 25-30
  • considered obese if BMI greater than 30
  • higher incidence of atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, heart disease, and osteoarthritis
  • more adults and children overweight than 20 years ago
  • 100 years ago ingested 4 ibs sucrose/year -> today 115ibs/year
82
Q

short term regulation of food intake

A
  • neural signals GI tract- vagus nerve suppresses hunger center
  • blood level of nutrients- increased nutrients in blood suppress eating
  • ingesting sugar sets of the brains reward (pleasure) center releasing dopamine, this may be genesis for overeating
  • GI tract hormones- gut hormones (e.g. insulin and CCK) depress hunger
83
Q

long term regulation of food intake: leptin

A

hormone secreted by fat cells in response to increased body fat mass

  • increased fat cells = increased leptin
  • high leptin lowered appetite
  • resining leptin -> some weight loss but to a point; not magic bullet for obese patients
  • high leptin levels in obese patients; resistant to its action
  • main function- protects against weight loss in tomes of nutritional deprivation
84
Q

additional factors in regulation of food intake

A
  • temperature- cold activates hunger
  • stress- depends on individual “survival mode”- store fuel, increase COH, increase serotonin, calming effect
  • psychological factors
  • sleep deprivation

HAN 202 (16 decks)

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