Chapter 23 & 24 Flashcards
Types of documents
Personal documents, organizational documents, mass media outputs, and virtual outputs
Scott’s (1990) criteria for assessing the quality of documents
1) Authenticity: Is the evidence genuine and of unquestionable origin?
2) Credibility: is the evidence free from error and distortion?
3) Representativeness: is the evidence typical of its kind, and, if not, is the extent of its untypicality known?
4) Meaning: is the evidence clear and comprehensible?
Approaches to analyzing data
- Qualitative content analysis
- Semiotics
- (Historical Analysis) - Not so important
Documents
are forms of material that can be read, have not been produced specifically for the purposes of research, are preserved so that they become available for analysis, and are relevant to the concerns of the business researcher
Qualitative Content analysis
typically entails applying predefined categories to sources and extracting themes from the documents.
Semiotics
The science of signs and analysis of symbols in everyday life. The way messages are communicated as a system of cultural meanings
Denotative (message) and connotatie codes (cultural context)
General strategies for qualitative data analysis
Analytical induction
Grounded theory
Analytical induction
an approach to the analysis of data in which the researcher seeks universal explanations of phenomena by pursuing the collection of data until no cases that are inconsistent with the hypothetical explanation (deviant or negative cases) of a phenomenon is found
Process of analytical induction
A rigorous search for a universal explanation of phenomena:
- Rough definition of research question
- Hypothetical explanation
- Data collection (examination of cases)
- If any deviant cases found, redefine or reformulate hypothesis
- Continue until all cases fit hypothesis
Grounded theory
‘theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered and analyzed through the research process. In this method, data collection, analysis, and eventual theory stand in close relationship to one another’ (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 12)
Two central features of grounded theory are that it is concerned with the development of theory out of data and the approach is iterative or recursive as it is sometimes called, meaning that data collection and analysis proceed in tandem, repeatedly referring back to each other
Iterative process
Repetitive interplay between data collection and analysis / theory building
Tools of grounded theory
1) Theoretical sampling
2) Coding
3) Theoretical saturation
4) Constant comparison (between concepts and indicators)
Theoretical sampling
The process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges. The process of data collection is controlled by the emerging theory, whether substantive or formal.
It is concerned with the refinement of ideas, rather than boosting sample size.
Types of coding
1) Open coding: ‘breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing data’ (Strauss and Corbin, 1990: 61)
2) Axial coding: ‘data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories’ (1990: 96)
3) Selective coding: ‘selecting the core category, systematically relating it to other categories, validating those relationships, and filling in categories that need further refinement and development’ (1990: 116).
Theoretical saturation
The key idea is that you carry on sampling theoretically until a category has been saturated with data. This means (a) no new or relevant data seems to be emerging regarding a category, (b) the category is well developed in terms of its properties and dimensions demonstrating variation, and (c) the relationships among categories are well established and validated (Strauss and Corbin, 1998)
Constant comparison
Close connection between data and concepts, constantly compare phenomena being coded under a certain category so that theoretical orientation emerges.
Writing memo’s on categories after coding some phenomena
Memos
Memos in grounded theory are notes that researchers write for themselves and those with whom they work concerning such elements of grounded theory like coding or concepts.
they serve as reminders about what is meant by the terms being used
they provide the building blocks for a certain amount of reflection
they help researchers to crystallize ideas and not to lose track of their thinking on various topics
Outcomes of Grounded theory
1) Concepts
2) Category/Categories
3) Properties
4) Hypothesis
5) Theory: set of well-defined categories that are systematically related to statements of relationships to form a theoretical framework that explains some relevant social or other phenomena
Process and outcomes of grounded theory
- Research question
- Theoretical sampling
- Collect data
- Coding
4a. Concepts - Constant comparison
5a. Categories
6 Saturate categories - Explore relationships between categories
7a. Hypotheses - Theoretical sampling
- Collect data
- Saturate categories
- test hypothesis
11a. Substantive theory - Collection an analysis of data in other settings
12a. Formal theory
Criticisms of grounded theory
- They can suspend their awareness of relevant theories or concepts until a late stage in the process of analysis
- Researchers are required to spell out the possible implications of their planned investigation
- Practical difficulties e.g. time taken to transcribe interviews
- Doubtful whether grounded theory in many instances really results in theory.
- Still vague on certain points such as the difference between concepts and categories
- Fragmenting data by coding can cause a loss of a sense of context
- Competing accounts of the elements of grounded theory do not make it easy to characterize it or establish how to use it
Levels of coding
- Basic coding
- More awareness of the content of what is said (the language used by the interviewee)
- Moving away from a close association with what the respondent says (broad analytic themes)
