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biology - module 5 & 6 > chapter 21 - manipulating genomes > Flashcards

chapter 21 - manipulating genomes Flashcards

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1
Q

Why do we compare genomes?

A

we compare genomes to :
- to understand evolutionary relationships
- understand genotype-phenotype relationships
- for epidemiology(disease analysis)
- synthetic biology(genetic engineering)

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2
Q

Why are the studies of genotype-phenotype relations and epidemiology important?

A
  • Analysing the genotype to predict the phenotype
  • understanding disease will help better prevent it
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3
Q

what is synthetic biology?

A
  • designing and creating new biological molecules, systems and machines
  • for example, making new enzymes to make them more efficient
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4
Q

What is DNA profiling?

A
  • identifying individuals by comparing their repetitive non coding base sequences
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5
Q

What are the two uses of DNA profiling?

A
  • forensic use
  • medical use
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6
Q

How is dna profiling used in forensics?

A
  • a sample of DNA is taken from a crime scene and suspects
  • the DNA is amplified using PCR
  • DNA is then labelled using a marker
  • the gel electropheresis is run
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7
Q

How is dna profiling helpful in medical use?

A
  • DNA profiling can be used for testing for specific combinations of alleles which can be used to diagnose genetic disease
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8
Q

What is a genome?

A
  • its the complete set of genetic material (genes + non coding DNA)that an organism has
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9
Q

what is a proteome?

A
  • the complete set of proteins that an organism can make
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10
Q

What two techniques are used to construct dna profiles and what are their purposes?

A
  • PCR, used to amplify dna
  • electrophoresis, separation of the the dna fragments
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11
Q

To produce a dna profile, dna must be:

A
  • extracted (usinf PCR)
  • digested using restriction endonucleases
  • separated using electrophoresis
  • hybridised with probes
  • visualised in banding patterns
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12
Q

What is the difference between dna profiling and dna sequencing?

A
  • dna profiling, identifying individuals by comparing their repetitive non coding base sequences
  • dna sequencing, is determining the precise order of nucleotides in a dna molecule
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13
Q

how is dna sequenced?

A
  • pcr is conducted
  • some of the free nucleotides in pcr have been modified in two ways:
  • when they bond to a dna strand they terminate polymerisation
  • they are fluorescently coloured
  • new dna strands stop growing when a terminator base is added (PCR is interupted)
  • this results in every possible chain length being produced
  • lasers detect the final base on each chain
  • the sequence of dna bases can therefore be worked out
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14
Q

why do we sequence dna and what is it used for?

A
  • to predict amino acid sequences
  • its used for understanding evolutionary relationships and in medicine(understand the antigens to make new vaccines)
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15
Q

why is it easier to predict amino acid base sequences in simple organisms over more complex organisms?

A
  • in more complex organisms, its harder to determine proteins from dna
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16
Q

What are the two ways in which target genes are isolated and how?

A
  • restriction enzymes, cuts the dna leaving sticky ends (unpaired bases)
  • Reverse transcriptase, enzyme that does transcription backwards (MRNA to CDNA)
17
Q

What are the 3 steps to insert target genes?

A
  • isolate target gene
  • insert target genes into vector
  • insert vector into bacteria
18
Q

What is the process of inserting target genes?

A
  • cut the dna using restriction enzyme which will leave sticky ends
  • use the same restriction enzyme to cut the plasmid open
  • this allows the sticky ends to be complementary
  • dna ligase reforms phosphodiester bonds
  • this forms recombinant dna(dna from more than one source or organism)
  • electroportation is used to increase the permeability of the bacterial cell wall, meanings its more likely to take up the recombinant plasmid
19
Q

What is a maker gene?
what is its use?

A
  • genes that are paired with target genes to check if the vector has been inserted properly
  • it tells us which bacteria have become transformed
20
Q

What are two examples of marker genes that can be used?

A
  • UV fluorescence
  • antibiotic resistance
21
Q

What is required for bacteria to fluorescence under uv and be able to survive in a culture with antibiotic?

A
  • needed to have accepted the vector
22
Q

What is needed in order for the polymerase chain reaction to happen?

A
  • dna sample
  • free dna nucleotides
  • primers
  • dna polymerase
23
Q

what are primers and what are they used for?

A
  • they are a short sequence of dna that are complementary to the start of dna sample
  • they are used to select which part of dna is copied
24
Q

what is the method for the polymerase chain reaction?

A
  • dna placed in thermocycler(cycles three temperatures)
  • first 95 degrees, which breaks the h- bonds and makes the dna single stranded
  • then cool to 55 degrees, allows primers to bind (via complementary base pairing), dna becomes double stranded
  • then heat to 70 degrees, dna polymerase adds complementary nucleotides and forms phosphodiester bonds
25
Q

What is gene therapy?

A
  • its changing faulty alleles that cause genetic disease
26
Q

give an example of diseases that are caused by both a dominant allele and a recessive allele

A
  • dominant, huntingtons disease
  • recessive, cystic fibrosis
27
Q

how is gene therapy used to treat someone with a dominant allele?

A
  • sufferer will be hetrozygous(different alleles)
  • they already have the functional allele
  • the dominant allele is silenced
  • use a vector to add a dna fragment into dominant allele
  • dominant allele wont be transcribed
  • recessive allele expressed
28
Q

How is gene therapy used to treat someone with a recessive allele?

A
  • sufferer will be homozygous(same allele)
  • use a vector to add the functional allele to dna
  • dominant allele will be expressed
29
Q

What are the two types of gene therapy?

A
  • germ line therapy, changes the alleles of gametes (offspring inherit changes)
  • somatic gene therapy, changes the alleles of body cells(non - gametes) (offspring don’t inherit changes)
30
Q

What are the possible problems with gene therapy?

A
  • alleles may be inserted into wrong locus
  • could silence wrong gene by mistake(tumour surpressor gene cause cancer)
  • gene could be over expressed
  • use of gene therapy could be used for non medical uses
31
Q

What are the main 3 uses of genetically modified organisms/

A
  • agriculture
  • industry and research
  • medicine
32
Q

How are genetically modified organisms used in agriculture?
what is the advantage of these uses?

A
  • a protein is expressed from a bacteria which is toxic to pests and so fewer soya plants are eaten. - advantage - use less chemical pesticide and more efficient food chain
  • gene from corn plant put into rice plant which will express vitamin A. - advantage - prevents blindness caused by vitamin A deficiency
33
Q

What are the disadvantages of using genetically modified organisms in agriculture?

A
  • monoculture of crop has low genetic diversity meaning they are more susceptible to disease
  • farmer has to buy seeds every year
  • decrease in biodiversity
34
Q

How are genetically modified organisms used in industry and research?
what is the advantage of these uses?

A
  • making enzymes. - advantage - reduces energy and cost, faster and cheaper production
  • transformed pathogen to treat disease by attacking other pathogens without infecting humans - advantage - treats disease, pathogen wont develop resistance
35
Q

What are the disadvantages of using genetically modified bacteria in industry and research?

A
  • could mutate and infect humans
  • could be used in war
36
Q

How are genetically modified organisms used in medicine?
what is the advantage of these uses?

A
  • transform bacteria to express protein
  • mammals can also be used to produce useful products in their milk
    advantages -
  • makes human proteins
  • cheaper and easier than making proteins synthetically

biology - module 5 & 6 (12 decks)

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