Chapter 2 - Theories of Human Development Flashcards
What type of development changes are changes in degree and indicate continuity?
a. Quantitative
b. Active
c. Qualitative
d. Passive
a. Quantitative
Tina is 2 years old. According to Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, in what stage would she be?
a. Phallic
b. Latent
c. Anal
d. Genital
c. Anal
Sally is having an identity crisis where she is questioning who she is and what she wants out of life. According to Erikson, Sally is in what psychosocial stage of development?
a. Infancy
b. Adolescence
c. Early adulthood
d. Middle adulthood
b. Adolescence
In Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment, by repeatedly pairing the bell with the arrival of food, Pavlov made the bell a(n):
a. conditioned stimulus.
b. unconditioned stimulus.
c. conditioned response.
d. unconditioned response.
a. conditioned stimulus.
A child receives praise for good marks in school. As a result, her parents agree not to force her to study on weekends. She continues to get good marks. Her parents’ decision serves as what?
a. Negative punishment
b. Positive punishment
c. Negative reinforcement
d. Positive reinforcement
c. Negative reinforcement
The notion that human development is shaped by the continuous interaction between the person, the person’s behaviour and their environment is known as what?
a. Reciprocal determinism
b. Self-efficacy
c. Vicarious reinforcement
d. Latent learning
a. Reciprocal determinism
Self-actualisation is the theory of which humanistic psychologist?
a. Jean Piaget
b. Albert Bandura
c. Abraham Maslow
d. Carl Rogers
c. Abraham Maslow
During which stage of cognitive development does an individual display a capacity for symbolic thought, but is not yet capable of logical problem solving?
a. Preoperational
b. Formal operations
c. Concrete operational
d. Sensorimotor
a. Preoperational
What has Gottlieb (1991) demonstrated regarding ducks preferring calls from ducks to calls from chickens?
a. The preference is instinctive
b. The preference requires early learning
c. The preference emerges at a set age
d. The preference is genetically determined
b. The preference requires early learning
What do the learning theories of Watson, Skinner and Bandura have in common with regard to development?
a. They focus on cognitive factors
b. They emphasise the role of the environment
c. They describe growth as qualitative
d. They stress the role of physical maturation
b. They emphasise the role of the environment
What term refers to the reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there, often accompanied by intense anxiety and emotional distress for the child or adolescent?
School refusal behaviour
What is a distinct phase within a larger sequence of development; a period characterised by a particular set of abilities, motives, behaviours or emotions that occur together and form a coherent pattern?
Developmental stage
What is the theoretical perspective that emphasises the importance of unconscious motivations, emotional conflicts and early experiences for shaping personality and behaviour?
Psychoanalytic theory
What are the inborn biological forces assumed to motivate behaviour?
Instincts
What do we call the power of instincts and other inner forces, such as feelings and conflicts, which influence thinking and behaviour without awareness?
Unconscious motivation
What do we call the inborn component of the personality that is driven by impulsive, irrational and selfish urges?
Id
What is the rational component of the personality that seeks to satisfy urges in a realistic manner?
Ego
What is the component of the personality that consists of the individual’s internalised moral standards?
Superego
What is the psychic energy of the sex instinct?
Libido
What do we call Freud’s five stages of development associated with biological maturation and shifts the libido?
Psychosexual Stages
What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages that were attributed to Freud?
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
What is the defence mechanism in which development is arrested and part of the libido remains tied to an early stage of development?
Fixation
What name is given to the psychic conflict that 3-6 year old boys experience when they develop an incestuous desire for their mothers and a jealous and hostile rivalry with their fathers?
Oedipus complex
What name is given to the psychic conflict that 3-6 year old girls experience when they envy their father for possessing a penis, which results in sexual desire for their father and rivalry with their mother?
Electra complex
What is the defence mechanism where the individual emulates or adopts the attitudes and behaviours of another person, particularly the same sex parent?
Identification
What are the mechanisms called that are used by the ego to defend itself against anxiety caused by conflict between the id’s impulses and social demands?
Defence mechanisms
What is the defence mechanism that involves retreating to an earlier, less traumatic stage of development?
Regression
What theory can be attributed to Erik Erikson?
Psychosocial Theory
What do we call Erikson’s 8 stages of development which emphasise social over maturational influences as drivers of development?
Psychosocial Stages
What are Eriksons 8 Psychosocial Stages?
Trust Autonomy Initiative Industry Identity Intimacy Generativity Integrity
What is the perspective that argues that conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of overt behaviour rather than on speculation about unconscious motives or other unobservable phenomena?
Behaviourism
What is the type of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response because of it’s association with a stimulus that already elicits the response?
Classical Conditioning
What is the stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning?
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
What is the unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus?
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
What is an initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that always elicits the response?
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
What is a learned response to a stimulus that did not originally produce the response?
Conditioned Response (CR)
Who performed the famous “Little Albert” experiment where a white rate was presented and a loud noise would occur behind Little Albert, thus eliciting a conditioned response, significantly suggesting that emotional responses can be learned?
John B Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920)
What is a form of learning in which behaviours (or operants) become more or less probable, depending on the consequences they produce?
Operant conditioning
What is the process in operant conditioning whereby a desirable vent, when introduced following a behaviour, makes that behaviour more probable in the future?
Positive reinforcement
What is the process in operant conditioning whereby something unpleasant is removed following a behaviour, which makes that behaviour more probable in the future?
Negative reinforcement
What is the process in operant conditioning whereby something unpleasant is applied or added to the situation following a behaviour, which makes that behaviour less probable in the future?
Positive punishment
What is the process in operant conditioning whereby something desirable is removed following a behaviour, which makes that behaviour less probably in the future?
Negative punishment
What is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response when it is no longer reinforced?
Extinction
What is Bandura’s social learning theory called, which emphasises the role of cognitive processing of social experiences for motivating and self-regulating human behaviour?
Social Cognitive Theory
What is learning the results from observing the behaviour of other people?
Observational learning
What is learning that occurs from observation but is not evident in behaviour?
Latent learning
What is a process in observational learning in which learners become more or less likely to perform a behaviour based on whether consequences experienced by the model they observe are reinforcing or punishing?
Vicarious reinforcement
What is the belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes in a particular are of life>?
Self-efficacy
What is the notion in social cognitive theory that human development is shaped by the continuous interaction between the person, the person’s behaviour and their environment?
Reciprocal determinism
What is the theoretical perspective that emphasises the innate goodness of people and a tendency toward growth and self-determination as motivating forces for cognition and behaviour?
Humanistic psychology
What is an innate human need for reaching one’s full potential?
Self-actualisation
What do we call the five ascending levels of human needs that motivate thought and behaviour?
Hierarchy of needs
What are the five levels in the hierarchy of needs?
Physiological needs Safety needs Belonging and love needs Esteem needs Self-actualisation needs
Who theorised the Hierarchy of Needs paradigm?
Abraham Maslow
Who were are the founders of humanistic psychology?
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
Who are the founders of learning theory perspective?
John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura
Who are the founders of the psychoanalytic theories?
Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson
What is the lower level physiological needs and psychological needs that motivate people to reduce a deficit or unpleasant state?
Basic needs (safety, belonging and love, and esteem)
What is the higher level needs associated with self-actualisation that motivate individuals to expand their personal potential?
Growth needs
What is the branch of psychology concerned with understanding what makes life worth living and how individuals and groups can thrive and flourish?
Positive psychology
What is the application of evolutionary theory and its concept of natural selection to understanding why humans think and act as they do?
Evolutionary psychology
Who were the pioneers of cognitive theories?
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
What is the name of Piaget’s theory of development which emphasises the role of experience and active exploration interaction with biological maturation as the drivers for cognitive development?
Cognitive development theory
What do we call the position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their experiences, as opposed to being born with innate ideas or being programmed by the environment?
Constructivism
What are Piagets 4 major periods of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
Concrete-operations stage
Formal-operations stage
What is the name of Vygotsky’s theory of development, which emphasises the role of the social and cultural context for cognitive development?
Sociocultural theory
What is the position that humans actively create their own understanding of the world from their social interaction one exposure to cultural tools such as language?
Social-construcitivism
What is the approach to cognition that emphasises the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory and decision making?
Information-processing approach
Who were the system theorists?
Urie Bronfenbrenner and Gilbert Gottlieb
What are the theoretical perspectives based on the concept that developmental changes over the life span arise from the ongoing interrelationships between a changing organism and a changing environment, both of which are part of a larger, dynamic system?
Systems theories
What is the evolutionary principle of “survival of the fittest”, in which individuals who have characteristics advantageous for survival in a particular environment are most likely to survive and reproduce, leading to species change and new species over generations?
Natural selection
What is the theoretical perspective that focuses on the evolved behaviour of different species in the natural environments?
Ethology
What do we call Gottlieb’s view that development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger dynamic system, both over the course of evolution and during the individuals life?
Epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective
What is the genetic endowment that members of a particular species have in common that contributes to universal species traits and patterns of maturation?
Species heredity
What is the change in a species achieved not through biological evolution but through learning and passing on from one generation to the next new ways of adapting to the environment?
Cultural evolution
What is the process through which nature and nurture, genes and environment, jointly bring forth development in ways that are difficult to predict at the outset?
Epigenesis
In the context of science, the individuals who recognise that no single theory can explain everything, but that each has something to contribute to our understanding are called what?
Eclectics
One of the basic issues of concern for developmental theorists is whether change is gradual and qualitative or abrupt and quantitative, This is referred to as the … issue?
a) nature and nurture
b) activity and passivity
c) continuity and discontinuity
d) universality and context specificity
c) continuity and discontinuity
Of the following, learning theorists have been most criticised for?
a) paying insufficient attention to biological and maturational processes of development
b) proposing that sexual instincts propel children from one stage of development to the next
c) the belief that cognitive development occurs through an invariant sequence of stages
a) paying insufficient attention to biological and maturational processes of development
