chapter 2: theories and issues in child development Flashcards
theory of development
scheme or system of ideas that is based on evidence and attempts to explain, describe and predict behaviour and development
minor theory
theory about a single phenomenon, very specific and narrow areas of development
major theory
attempt to explain large areas of development (development of cognition)
what’s a good developmental theory
relates to ontogeny (individual development), focuses on change over time, explains the emergence of new properties (does a baby already have the same reasoning capacity as do adults – if not, how did it get it?), is preferably useful in education or interventions
four main dimensions about development
nature vs nurture, stability vs change, continuity vs discontinuity, passive vs active
behavior genetics
the study of how genetic factors influence behaviour and, more generally, differences between individuals
nature/endogenous
knowledge is innate and gets expressed during the course of development
nurture/exogenous
only learning mechanisms are innate, all the rest of development is determined by the environment
continuous development
gradual, children aren’t qualitatively different from adults, children just lack experience
discontinuous development
development occurs in stages and transitions, children are qualitatively different from adults
continuity + stages
development is gradual but some behaviours dominate temporarily and that’s why development appears to occur stagewise
stability and change
- Stability – early experiences influence current and later development, certain aspects of child’s development display stability (consistent and predictable across time) – shyness, tendency to be aggressive
- Change – approach (the tendency to extreme friendliness and lack of caution with strangers), sluggishness (reacting passively to changing circumstances) – unstable
motor milestones
the basic motor skills acquired in infancy and early childhood, such as sitting unaided, standing, crawling, walking
why is motor development important
the ability to act on the world affects all other aspects of development, and brings higher independence
maturational theory
Gessel (1924) – biologically directed maturation, the same development independent of environmental input
two directions of development (maturational theory)
o Cephalocaudal trend – development that proceeds from head to foot along the length of the body
o Proximodistal trend – the development of motor control in infancy – from the centre of the body outwards to more peripheral segments (the head, trunk and pelvic girdle are brought under control before the elbow, wrist, knee and ankle joints – finer control over hands and fingers)
what determines development according to the maturational theory
Maturation of the nervous system
criticism of the maturational theory
o The fact that motor skills develop in a regular sequence doesn’t provide a genetic cause
Advanced skill (learning a sport) – invariant sequence of development – progressing from simple actions to more complex integrated skilful behaviour
o A maturational theory doesn’t account for the considerable individual differences in the acquisition of various motor skills
dynamic systems theory
A theoretical approach in which an individual is viewed as interacting dynamically in a complex system in which all parts interact
system
collection of components that are interrelated (ex: body, family, flock of birds)
dynamic system
collection of changing components that influence each other, describes how a state changes into another state over time
micro genetic studies of motor development
experimenters observe individual infants or children from the time they first attempt a new skill until it’s performed effortlessly
Esther Thelen’s three major facts
nervous system development (nature), the capabilities and biomechanics of the body (nature), environmental constraints and support (context and tasks)
Thelen experiments
kicking, reaching, weight
psychoanalysis
the theoretical view that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious factors
functional invariants
processes that don’t change during development (such as accommodation and assimilation)
strategy
knowledge used to solve particular problems
information processing approaches
- Include current views of memory formation – encoding, storage, retrieval, strategies, metamemory
o Rooted in 20th century innovations – computer technology + the view that an organism’s behaviour can’t be understood without knowing the structure of the perceiver’s environment + constructivism (Piaget’s theoretical view that infants aren’t born with knowledge about the world, but gradually construct it and the ability to represent reality mentally – perception fills in information that can’t be seen or heard directly – inferring the parts of an object that are hidden from the view via inference + Gibson’s theory – constructive view concerned with how we construct our perceptual, not cognitive, world)
bottom-up
a cognitive development process beginning with the input or uptake of information by the child, and building complex systems of knowledge from simpler origins
top-down
a cognitive development process in which the state of the system is specified or presumed, and then working to discover its components and development – consistent with nativist theory
Cohen’s experiments
kids perceive causality (perception of the causal nature of interactions between objects and between people – when 2 objects collide and then they move)
o Temporal and physical proximity
o Ex: when the second ball moves after a brief delay (violating temporal proximity) or before being contacted (violating physical proximity), 6-month-old infants didn’t seem to see the event as causal
strategies in maths experiment
o Examination of arithmetic strategies (learning to add by memorisation, counting on fingers) repeatedly in children as the school year progresses and recording speed, accuracy and strategy use
o Strategic changes have been noted: incorporation of new strategies, identification of efficient strategies, more efficient execution of each strategy, and more adaptive choices
o There are stable individual differences in strategy choice, but children typically use multiple strategies at all points of the assessment + hone their choices with experience and come to solve problems more quickly and accurately
connectionism
a modern theoretical approach that developed from information processing accounts in which computers are programmed to simulate the action of the brain and nerve cells (neurons
2 advances of cognitive science
the use of connectionist models and methods for recording brain activity in infants and children
connectionist models
computer programs designed to emulate (model) some aspect of human cognition, including cognitive development
similarities Piaget and information processing
- Both attempt to specify children’s abilities and limitations as development proceeds + explain how new levels of understanding develop from earlier less advanced ones
o Share a focus on active participation by the child in their own development – children learn by doing, by trying new strategies and discovering the consequences, and learn by directing their attention appropriately
differences between information processing and Piaget
o Information-processing: importance on the role of processing limitations in limiting children’s thinking and reasoning at any point of time + emphasize the development of strategies and procedures for helping to overcome these limitations
Piaget’s theory doesn’t discuss processing limitations, discusses developmental changes in terms of the child gradually constructing logical framework for thought (concrete and formal operations)
o Information processing accounts see development as unfolding in a continuous fashion, rather than stages (Piaget)
- Ex: a child moving from Piaget’s preoperational stage to concrete operations stage – when presented with a conservation of number task, the preoperational child centres attention on one aspect of the changed array and ignores the other
* When a child is able to overcome this limitation they move to the qualitatively different level of thinking
- Information processing would simply say that the child’s processing capacity has increased – able to hold two things in mind simultaneously – qualitative change in processing capacity
didactic relationship
based on interactive dialogue
ZDP
the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more able peers
introspectionism
approach to psychology common in the 19th century in which observers were asked to reflect on their thoughts, feelings and perceptions
ethological approaches
approaches which emphasise the evolutionary origins of many behaviours that are important for survival such as imprinting
imprinting
a process soon after birth or hatching in which the young of precocial species of animals (ducks, geese, sheep, horses) follow the first moving object they see
o Leads to a physical proximity between parent and offspring – the parent is always at hand to give warmth and food + protect from predators
critical period
limited period (usually early in an animal’s life) in which the young have to be exposed to a particular skill or experience in order for it to be learned
primary drives
basic needs which include hunger, thirst and the need for warmth + attachment (Bowlby)
secondary drives
a term used to refer to the fact that an object can acquire reinforcing properties by being associated with the satisfaction of an individual’s primary drives
monotropy
the view that the infant has a basic need to form an attachment with one significant person, usually the mother
o Later overstated – infants often formed multiple attachments – in some cases the strongest attachment to fathers, grandparents or peers who didn’t fulfil basic caregiving activities but who did engage in satisfying interactions with them
strange situation
o A baby (around a year old) and a mother enter a room in which there are several toys
o Observer notes the infant’s response to several events: when the stranger enters, when the mother leaves, and when she returns
o Several attachment styles that differ in degree of security
main personality structures for Freud
o Id – a primitive collection of urges with which an individual begins life, responsible for an individual’s primitive instincts (eating and reproducing)
o Ego – rational thought that evolved to control the urges of the id in order to meet the demands of reality and maintain social approval and esteem
o Superego – a collection of ideals, an individual’s morality, conscience, is often in conflict with id
psychosexual stages
- Oral stage (0 – 1 years)
o Greatest satisfaction from stimulation of the lips, tongue and mouth – sucking is the chief source of pleasure - Anal stage (1 – 3 years)
o Toilet or potty training takes place and the child gains the greatest psychosexual pleasure from exercising control over the anus and by retaining and eliminating faeces - Phallic stage (3 – 6 years)
o Oedipus complex – the young boy develops sexual feelings towards his mother but realises that his father is a major competitor for her affections
o Castration complex – the young boy fears castration at the hands of his fathers
In order to resolve the complex he adopts the ideals of his father and the superego develops
o Electra complex – little girls develop feelings towards their father and fear retribution at the hands of their mothers
Resolved by empathising with their mothers, adopting the ideals she offers, and so the girl’s superego develops - Latency and genital stage (6 to adolescence)
o From around 6 years the child’s sexual awakening goes into a resting period (latency)
o At adolescence sexual feelings become more apparent and urgent and the genital stage appears – true sexual feelings emerge and the adolescent strives to cope with awakening desires
problems with the Freudian theory
unconscious processes can’t be measured and so it’s often claimed that belief in Freudian ideas
+ Reaction formation – the individual may react, often unconsciously, to negative aspects of their personality
significance of psychoanalysis
Early childhood can be immensely important in affecting and determining later development
We can be driven by unconscious needs and desires of which we aren’t aware – if we didn’t go through one of the childhood psychosexual stages very well, this could reflect later in neurotic symptoms
humanistic theories
theory which emphasises that humans have free will and are motivated to fulfil their potential
difference Maslow and psychoanalysis
much less emphasis on the role of the unconscious – we’re not driven by unconscious needs nor external environmental pulls such as reinforcement and rewards, humans have free will and are motivated to fulfil their potential
self-actualization
fulfilment of needs beyond those deemed necessary for survival
hierarchy of needs
stages of needs in Maslow’s humanistic theory which go from the basic physiological needs for food and water to the ultimate desire of self-actualisation or the desire to fulfil one’s potential
gender development
the developing understanding by a child that it’s either a girl or a boy and that there are gender-appropriate behaviours associated with this difference
Kohlberg gender constancy
the awareness, in early childhood, that one is either a boy or a girl, and that this is unchangeable
+Most children come to this realisation after 3 years of age and most know it by the age of 7 – once children understand which gender they are, they will develop appropriate gender-role behaviours
