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Introduction To Development Test 1 > Chapter 2 - Theories > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Theories Flashcards

1
Q

A development theory predicts?

A

Human behavior

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2
Q

What are the 6 development theories?

A 
Psychoanalytic
Ethological
Cognitive
Ecological
Behavioural/Social Cognitive
Developmental Health
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3
Q

Freud and Erikson supported which developmental theory?

A

Psychoanalytic

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4
Q

Pavlov, Skinner, Watson and

Bandura supported which developmental theory?

A

Behavioural/Social Cognitive

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5
Q

Bronfenbrenner supported which developmental theory?

A

Ecological

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6
Q

Piaget and Vygotsky supported which developmental theory?

A

Cognitive

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7
Q

Explain Psychoanalytic Approach

A
  • Children are rarely aware of the motives and reasons behind their behaviour and bulk of their mental life is unconscious.
  • Development is influenced largely by emotion.
  • Behaviours are superficial-surface characteristic.
  • Behaviour symbolizes the inner workings of the mind.
  • Early experience is important to development
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8
Q

Who did psychoanalytic theory originate with?

A

Sigmund Freud

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9
Q

Freud’s ideas?

A
  • Development of the first 6 years occurs in 5 stages (first 3 are important for determining personality) – each characterized by sexual interest and pleasures centered around a particular part of the body
  • He thought that at each of these stages, sensual satisfaction from stimulation of these body parts was linked to major developmental needs and challenges
  • Each stage had a conflicts between child and parent (weaning, toilet training)

Believed that the early stages provide the foundation for adult behavior

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10
Q

3 Structures of Personality

A

Id, Ego and Superego

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11
Q

Id

A

The id is the most basic part of the personality, and wants instant gratification for our wants and needs. If these needs or wants are not met, a person becomes tense or anxious.

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12
Q

Ego

A

The ego deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially acceptable in the world (using reasoning to make decisions). This may mean delaying gratification, and helping to get rid of the tension the id feels if a desire is not met right away.

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13
Q

What is the executive branch of personality?

A

Ego

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14
Q

Superego

A

The superego develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong. Even though the superego and the ego may reach the same decision about something, the superego’s reason for that decision is more based on moral values, while the ego’s decision is based more on what others will think or what the consequences of an action could be. Conscience.

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15
Q

Freud􏰀’s Five Psychosexual Stages of Development

A 
Oral Stage
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
Latency Stage
Genital Stage
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16
Q

Freud􏰀’s Oral Stage

A

Infant’s pleasure centers on mouth ‘suckling’

i.e. put objects in mouth

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17
Q

Freud􏰀’s Anal Stage

A

Child’s pleasure focuses on anus and from elimination

Toilet training is the challenge

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18
Q

Freud􏰀’s Phallic Stage

A

Child’s pleasure focuses on Genitals

Oedipus (boys) Electra (girls)

*penis envy

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19
Q

Freud􏰀’s Latency Stage

A

Child represses sexual interest and develops social and Intellectual skills. An interlude.

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20
Q

Freud􏰀’s Genital Stage

A

A time of sexual reawakening;

source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside of the family

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21
Q

“Critical periods”

A

resolving conflicts between sources of pleasure and demands of reality

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22
Q

Freud vs Erikson

A 
Freud
•  Psychosexual
•  Personality: First 6 years
•  5 Stages
•  Series of stages filled with conflict between biological urges and social demands
Erikson
•  Psychosocial
•  Personality:Life-span
•  8 Stages
•  Early experiences and family relationships are very important to development
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23
Q

Erikson’s ideas?

A

Early experiences and family relationships are very important to development. Personality is best seen as a developmental process throughout the lifespan (and not just first six years as Freud believed). Psychosocial rather than psychosexual.

Erikson recognized adult development, with three stages after adolescence

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24
Q

Erikson’s 8 stages?

A 
Trust vs Mistrust
Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt
Initiative vs Guilt
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Identity confusion
Intimacy vs Isolation
Generativity vs Stagnation
Integrity vs Despair
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25
Q

Trust vs Mistrust

A

Infancy (first year)

Hope

Babies must learn to trust their parents, or they will develop a distrust in the world.

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26
Q

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

A

Infancy (1 to 3)

Will

Child learns to fee themselves and do other things, or they could start feeling ashamed and doubt their abilities.

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27
Q

Initiative vs Guilt

A

Early Childhood (4 to 5)

Purpose

Using initiative in planning or carrying out plans, or develop a sense of guilt over misbehavior regarding parent limits.

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28
Q

Industry vs Inferiority

A

Middle and late childhood (6-9)

Competence

Learn to follow the rules imposed by schools or home, or the child can start believing they are inferior to others.

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29
Q

Identity vs Identity confusion

A

Adolescence (10 to 20)

Fidelity

Acquire a sense of identity, or can become confused about ones role in life.

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30
Q

Intimacy vs Isolation

A

Early adulthood (20s, 30s)

Love

Develop a relationship and joint identity with a partner, or can become isolated and stay away from meaningful relationships.

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31
Q

Generativity vs Stagnation

A

Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)

Care

Making use of time and having a concern with helping others and guiding the next generation, or can become self centered.

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32
Q

Integrity vs Despair

A

Late adulthood (60+)

Wisdom

Understand and accept the meaning of temporary life, or complains about regrets, not having enough time, and not finding a meaning throughout life.

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33
Q

How do you pass each stage in Erikson’s or Freud’s stages?

A

Developmental task or crisis to resolve

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34
Q

Relationship between Psychoanalytic Theories and Development

A

Important in describing rationale for behaviours. Explains the motivation for certain acts and the fears that prevent other actions.

Freud believes that the first 6 years defines the child’s personality for life

Erikson believes that personality develops over lifetime but each stage must have a proper resolution in order for an individual to feel wholesome

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35
Q

Behaviourism

A

Only that which can be directly observed and measured can be studied in a scientific way. Development is learned and shaped by our environment

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36
Q

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning experiment

A

Association - dogs, bells, salivation

Noticed that his experimental dogs drooled not only at the smell of food but also at the sound of the footsteps of the people bringing the food

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37
Q

How did John Watson critique some parents?

A

Thought parents were too soft - ‘Quit cuddling and smiling at the babies so much’

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38
Q

How did John Watson believe we can shape children?

A

By examining and changing the environment

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39
Q

What does Skinner’s Operant Conditioning focus on?

A

Positive and negative reinforcement. Reward and punishment shape behaviour.

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40
Q

What does Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory focus on?

A

Observation and imitation or

modeling. Focused heavily on Observational Learning (Imitation or Modeling)

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41
Q

Who is Ivan Pavlov? What was his research?

A

Russian physiologist, first described classical conditioning in 1899 while conducting research into the digestive system of dogs.

Pavlov used an apparatus to measure the amount of saliva produced when a dog ate. The flow of saliva occurred naturally whenever food was
placed in the dog’s mouth, as salivation is an involuntary, reflex response.

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42
Q

Stimulus

A

any event that elicits a response from an organism.

43
Q

Response

A

a reaction by an organism to a stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the stimulus of food initially produced the response of salivation.

44
Q

2 major divisions of nervous system?

A

peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS)

45
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli

46
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits the response produced by the unconditioned stimulus itself.

47
Q

Unconditioned response

A

The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. A UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by a UCS.

48
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response.

49
Q

Association

A

the pairing or linking of one stimulus with another stimulus.

50
Q

Conditioned response

A

the learned response that is produced by the CS. The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS.

51
Q

Pavlov’s key processes that are involved in classical conditioning?

A

Acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and spontaneous recovery

52
Q

Each paired presentation of the CS with UCS is referred to as a?

A

Trial

53
Q

Acquisition

A

the overall process during which the organism learns to associate 2 events.

54
Q

Extinction

A

the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented.

55
Q

Generalization example?

A

Little albert became scared of fluffy things because of classical conditioning, and he applied this fear to all other furry things, not just rats

56
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Rewards and punishments shape behaviour

57
Q

Schedules of Reinforcements

A

Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval

58
Q

Fixed Ratio

A

A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement means that reinforcement should be delivered after a constant or “fixed” number of correct responses.

i.e. a fixed ratio schedule of 2 means reinforcement is delivered after every 2 correct responses

59
Q

Variable Ratio

A

When using a variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement the delivery of reinforcement will “vary” but must average out at a specific number.

i.e. a teacher following a “VR2” schedule of reinforcement might give reinforcement after 1 correct response, then after 3 more correct responses, then 2 more, then 1 more and finally after 3 more correct responses.

Overall there were a total of 10 correct responses (1 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 3 = 10), reinforcement was delivered 5 times and so reinforcement was delivered for every 2 correct responses on average (10 ÷ 5 = 2)

60
Q

Fixed Interval

A

A fixed-interval schedule means that reinforcement becomes available after a specific period of time. Reinforcement only becomes available to be delivered and would only be given if the target behaviour is emitted at some stage after the time interval has ended.

61
Q

Variable Interval

A

The variable-interval schedule of reinforcement means the time periods that must pass before reinforcement becomes available will “vary” but must average out at a specific time interval.

i.e. Following a “VI3” schedule of reinforcement, a teacher could make reinforcement available after 2 minutes, then 5 minutes, then 3 minutes, then 4 minutes and finally 1 minute. In this example, reinforcement became available 5 times over a total interval period of 15 minutes. On average then, three minutes had to pass before reinforcement became available (2 + 5 + 3 + 4 + 1 = 15 ÷ 5 = 3) and so this was a VI3 schedule.

62
Q

Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

A

Bandura showed that children will alter their behaviour by simply watching others

63
Q

Bandura’s modeling/imitation

A

Child observes someone admired → child imitates behavior that seems rewarded

64
Q

Cognitive theory

A

A theory of human development that focuses on the structure and development of thinking, which shapes people’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours

65
Q

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental theory

A

Children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through 4 stages of cognitive development. Cognitive processes are influenced by biological maturation. Children use assimilation and accommodation to understand their world

66
Q

Piaget􏰀s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

A

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years of age)
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years of age)
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years of age)
Formal Operational Stage (11–15 years of age through adulthood)

67
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions: progressing from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward end of the stage.

68
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

The child begins to represent the world with words
and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.

69
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A

The child can now reason about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.

70
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A

The adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic and logical ways.

71
Q

Assimilation

A

The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit old ideas

i.e. learning that not all 4 legged animals are dogs

72
Q

Accommodation

A

The restructuring of new ideas to include/accommodate new experiences

i.e. noticing that something that looks like a horse is not a horse; paying attention to differences between horse and zebra

73
Q

The process of accommodating is called?

A

Adaptation

74
Q

Cognitive Equilibrium

A

In cognitive theory, the state of mental balance that enables a person to reconcile new experiences with existing understanding. People strive to attain this.

75
Q

Cognitive Equilibrium chart

A

Equilibrium ➠ New Idea ➠ Disequilibrium ➠ Assimilation ➠ Adaptation ➠ Accommodation ➠ New Equilibrium

76
Q

Major Focuses of the 3 Grand Theories

A

Cognitive Theory ➠ Ideas, beliefs, assumptions
Behaviorism ➠ Actions (what a person does)
Psychoanalytic Theory ➠ Emotions (love, hate, fear, etc.)

77
Q

Sociocultural Theory

A

An emergent theory that holds that human development results from the dynamic interactions between each person and the surrounding culture, including all the social forces, near and distant, that affect that person

78
Q

Emergent theory

A

an outcome of organization research in which theory is allowed to come to light through a systematic data collection and analysis

79
Q

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

A

Social and cultural contexts are primary factors in a child’s development. Knowledge is created through interactions with other people and objects in the culture.

Less skilled persons learn from the more skilled – some tasks are too difficult for children to master alone

80
Q

Guided participation

A

in sociocultural theory, the process by which a skilled person helps a novice learn by providing not only instruction but also a direct, shared involvement in the learning process

81
Q

What does the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) do?

A

Provides guidance
Creates goals
Instructs in a variety of ways Scaffolds learning

82
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A

A metaphorical area, or “zone”, surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close (proximal) to acquiring but cannot yet master without help

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help

83
Q

Epigenetic Systems Theory

A

An emergent theory of development that emphasizes the interaction of genes and the environment – that is, both the genetic origins of behaviour (within person and species)and the direct, systematic influence that environment forces have, over time, on genes

84
Q

Epigenetics

A

All the factors that affect the expression of the genetic instruction (stress, injury, temperature, crowding, food, loving care).

Unlike genetics based on changes to the DNA sequence (the genotype), the changes in gene expression with epigenetics result from other causes.

85
Q

Epigenetic factors are affected by

A

The mom, the dad, food, environment, drugs

86
Q

Selective Adaptation

A

The idea that humans and other animals gradually adjust to their environment; specifically the process by which particular genetic traits in a population increases and others decrease over generations, depending on whether a given trait contributes to the survival of the species.

i.e. skin pigment near equator is dark

87
Q

How has Psychoanalytic theory contributed to the study of human development

A

made us aware of the importance of early childhood experiences and the impact of hidden dramas

88
Q

How has Behaviorism contributed to the study of human development

A

has shown us the effect that the immediate environment can have on behaviour

89
Q

How has Cognitive theory contributed to the study of human development

A

has brought us to a greater understanding of how intellectual processes and thinking affect actions

90
Q

How have Epigenetics Systems contributed to the study of human development

A

emphasizes the inherited forces that affect each person and all humankind – within particular contexts.

91
Q

Comparisons and Controversies of theories

A

Continuity versus Discontinuity – is development continuous or discontinuous like suggested by Freud and Erikson with distinct stages

Normal Difference or Harmful Deficit – white, middle-classs, native-born children in wealthy nations have dominated research subjects throughout history. Developing poor countries were seen as having deficits because they deviated from the norm set by the middle-class.

Nature versus Nurture

92
Q

Norm

A

An average or typical standard of behavior or accomplishment

*Something can be outside of the norm but not abnormal

93
Q

behaviorism

A

A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior (also known as learning theory, because it describes the learning process)

*Behaviorists believe that development occurs bit by bit rather than in stages

94
Q

White coat syndrome

A

occurs when people who have negative past experiences with white coats, so it conditioned anxiety

95
Q

Operant conditioning

A

The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (makes animal want to repeat) or something unwanted (makes action less repeated)

96
Q

Social learning theory

A

an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior. People learn through the observation and imitation of other people, which occurs through modeling

97
Q

Cognitive theory

A

a grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. Our thoughts shape our attitude, beliefs and behaviors according to this theory

98
Q

Cognitive disequilibrium

A

an imbalance that creates confusion

99
Q

What is more difficult, assimilation or accommodation?

A

Accommodation

100
Q

Information-processing theory

A

a perspective that compare human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories and output

101
Q

Guided participation

A

the process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations, this learning is direct and interactive

102
Q

Apprenticeship in thinking

A

Vygotsky’s term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of the community

103
Q

Similarity between Freud and Erikson’s theories?

A

Mother baby relationship is considered to be very important

Introduction To Development Test 1 (14 decks)

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