Chapter 2: Studying behavior scientifically Flashcards
Describe hindsight
Speculating why something happened after the fact.
What is hindsight reasoning?
Thinking you predicted a result you already know
Why is hindsight a problem
Using hindsight isn’t objective and it’s sorting like predicting a hockey game result after the game
Name three principles of the scientific method
Curiosity
Skepticism
Open-mindedness
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method
- Identify a problem
- Formulate a hypothesis
- Test the hypothesis
- Analyze data
- Build a theory
Describe a hypothesis
A tentative explanation about some phenomenon that can be testable/falsifiable
Describe the characteristics of theories
- Broader than any one single prediction
- Dynamic (new knowledge can be added)
- Change occurs and paradigm shifts (sudden change in an idea) can happen
What are characteristics of a good theory
- Incorporate existing and observations within it’s framework
- Are testable/falsifiable
- Have predictions supported by research
- Conform to the law of parsimony (have a simple explanation)
- Is generalizable(can be applied to other experiments)
Give examples of overt behavior
Play patterns, reaction time
What are examples of physiological measures
Hart rate, pupil dilation
What is an example of a psychological test?
An IQ test
What does operationalizing mean?
Defining a concept by the procedures used to produce or measure it (eg. measuring stress using heart rate)
Describe reliability
Does a measure produce consistent results
Describe validity
Does a measure relate to what it’s actually supposed to do
What is it mean to be obtrusive
Having the tools used in measuring data get in the way of the data which is problematic
What is data on a subject taken before one begins a research project on that subject known as
Archival measures
What are correlational studies
They examine the relationship/among variables
What are experimental methods
They examine the cause/effect between two variables
What are case studies
In depth analysis of a group or event
What are advantages of case studies
- Can be a source of new ideas/hypothesizes
- Can challenge validity of a theory
- Grants an opportunity to study a rare phenomenon
What are disadvantages of case studied
- May have researcher bias and may not be objective
- Cannot establish cause and effect
- May not be generalized to multiple groups of people
What is naturalistic observation
Observing behavior in a natural setting
What are some advantages of naturalistic observation
Provides a rich description and has high ecological validity
What are some disadvantages of naturalistic observation
Cannot make cause and effect inferences
What is survey research and what are the advantages and disadvantages that go with it
Survey research collects data based on questionnaires
Advantages- efficient way to collect data, can tell changes over time
Disadvantages- cannot infer cause and effect, self-reports can be subjective, possible issue with representativeness
How can issues of not representing an entire population occur with surveys
Gathering results from only one group of people can make the data unreliable (eg. asking only wealthy people who they believe would win the election)
Why is random sampling important?
It allows everyone in the population to be equally represented
What is stratified random sampling
Placing certain parameters in your research that takes into account differences in the population (eg. knowing half a population is bilingual, so ensuring half your sample is bilingual)
What is correlational research
It seeks to find the relationships between two variables of interest (when x is affected, how is y affected) Only tells us HOW two things are related, not WHY
What are advantages of correlational research
- Can be used to make inferences about variables
- Gauges the strengths of relationships already present
- Identifies ‘real-world’ associations
What are disadvantages of correlational research
- Study is taken outside lab, making it uncontrolled
- Further research must be done to find causation
What is the bidirectionality problem
It is questioning which variable is affecting which, if any
What is the variable problem
Is there another variable in the relationship
Describe correlation coefficients
A mathematical way to describe correlation with values that range from -1.0-1.0.
- 0.1=small effect, 0.5+=large effect
- Negative correlation numbers indicate variable change in opposite direction
Why are experiments special
They allow us to make inferences about cause and effect due to directly manipulating one variable while controlling others.
What is a within-subject design
Having one participant test all the conditions. If you can attain results this way without bias, you should
What is between subject design
Different participants are associated with different conditions.
What is random assignment and why is it important
Randomly assigning which participant gets what variable, this minimizes alternative explanations for results
What is counterbalancing
Alternating the order of conditions for each participant in a study in order to reduce confounding order effects.
What is internal validity
The degree to how what happens in an experiment leads to clear cut conclusions
What are confounds
Two variables are intertwined and it is difficult to say which one caused the dependent variable. (eg. making a workout regime for people who already work out)
What is a placebo and the placebo effect
A placebo is something that has no pharmacological effect and the placebo affect is a change that someone has from a placebo due to expectations alone. Placebo effects reduce internal validity
What is the importance of a placebo group
Having a placebo group which is a form of control group can help estimate the effect of the placebo effect
What are experimenter expectancy effects
Researchers can unintentionally influence data to allow them to get wanted results.
What is a double-blind procedure
A procedure used to reduce experimenter expectancy effects where neither the researcher or the participant is aware of the condition.
What is external validity
It refers to whether or not an experiment can be generalized to be done in other experiments.
What is meta analyses
Using results from many different experiments.
What is deception and when is it acceptable in studied
Deception is swaying a subjects perspective for more focus. It can be only done if absolutely necessary and it must be mild.
What is debriefing
Telling the participants what happened in the experiment afterwards. This is required.
What are bioethics
Ethics that deal with the field of medicine and biology
eg. is it ethical to change genes
