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PSY101 > Chapter 2 Study Guide > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Study Guide Flashcards

1
Q

What is the major constituent of all living things?

A

Water

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2
Q

Water makes up what % of the total body weight for the average adult?

A

65% to 75%

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3
Q

What are the 2 major water compartments?

A

Intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments

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4
Q

What solutes can you find dissolved in the body waters?

A

Organic: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules and ions (atoms with a net charge)

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5
Q

What is the Universe made up of?

A

Matter

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6
Q

What is the definition for “mass”?

A

Mass is how much matter there is in an element.

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7
Q

How many different kinds of matter occur naturally?_____________ What do we call these different types?___________

A

92 different kinds of matter occur naturally, these are called elements.

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8
Q

Define “atoms”. What do atoms consist of?

A

Atoms are the smallest unit of the chemical elements. It consists of a nucleus, which has two types of particles Protons (positive charged), Neutrons (neutral charged)

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9
Q

What sub-atomic particles can you find in the nucleus?

A

Protrons and Neutrons

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10
Q

Where do you find virtually all of an atom’s mass?

A

Most of the atom’s mass is located in the nucleus.

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11
Q

What is the mass number for: Protons? Neutrons? Electrons?

A

For any element:

Number of Protons = Atomic Number
Number of Electrons = Number of Protons = Atomic Number
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number

http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html

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12
Q

What does the atomic number (elemental #) tell you about an atom?

A

The Atomic number (elemental #) tells you the number of protons.

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13
Q

What is the electrical charge on: Protons? Neutrons? Electrons?

A

P = + / E = - / N = no charge

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14
Q

What is the relationship between the # of protons and electrons?

A

The protons are equal to the number of electrons.

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15
Q

What are isotopes?

A

Isotopes are different forms of a particular atom. E.g. Cl atoms

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16
Q

Define the following terms: molecules, compounds.

A
  • Molecules:* two or more atoms held together by a chemical bond
  • **Compounds: *** two or more elements (H2O)
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17
Q

The atoms making up a molecule are held together by chemical bonds. Name and describe 4 chemical bonds we will be using

A
  • Molecules:* interaction of the valence electrons between two or more atoms.
  • Covalent Bonds:* when atoms share their valence electrons. Formed between identical atoms. Nonpolar electrons equally distributed; polar electrons positive and negative.
  • Ionic Bonds: * when one ore more valence electrons from one atom are completely transferred to a second atom.
  • **Hydrogen Bonds: *** Hydrogen always bonds with F, N, O. Forms when a Hydrogen atoms forms a polar covalent bond with O or N and H gains a slight positive charge as the electron is pulled toward the other atom. These hold DNA proteins
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18
Q

What are ions? Cations? Anions?

A

Ions: Atoms or molecules that have positive or negative charges.
Cations: Positively charged ions
Anion: negatively charged
These form an ionic compound NaCl

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19
Q

How may bonds will carbon always make? Oxygen? Hydrogen?

A

Carbon always forms 4 bonds
Oxygen always forms 2 bonds
Hydrogen always forms 1 bond

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20
Q

In what 2 places might we find “hydrogen bonds” used?

A

The holding of DNA proteins
Hydrogen Bonds can also be formed between adjacent water molecules, which are responsible for surface tension and capillary action.

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21
Q

What are “hydration spheres”?

A

Hydration spheres make an ion or a molecule water soluble. Dissociation of the ionic compound NaCl yields Na+ Cl-. Each of these ions attracts polar water molecules. The water molecules that surround these ions in turn attract other molecules of water to form hydration spheres around each ion.

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22
Q

Define: Dissolve. Dissociation

A

When a substance splits into simpler molecules when put in water and do not recombine to give original substance then we say it dissolves in water. Ex: sugar dissolves in water.
If a substance breaks up when put in water and reunites to give original substance then we say dissociates in water they can associate to give back original sub. Ex: Acetic acid when mixed with water dissociates into acetate ions and hydrogen ions. CH3COOH = CH3COO- + H+

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23
Q

Water itself can dissociate into what 2 ions?_________ & ___________

A

H & OH

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24
Q

What is the definition of an: Acid? Base?

A
  • Acid* – is a compound that when placed in water will release a Hydrogen ion. (H)
  • Base* – is a compound that absorbs Hydrogen ions. (OH)
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25
Q

What scale is used to indicate the H+ concentration? _____. This is a ___________ scale.

A

The pH scale, which is a 0 to 14 scale.

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26
Q

Be able to write the 2 different equations for pH.

A
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27
Q

What do “buffers” do? Why are they useful in living organisms?

A

Buffers are compounds that reduce change in PH, and hold PH constant. This is useful in living organisms because buffers help maintain dynamic equilibrium.

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28
Q

What are “acidosis” and “alkalosis”

A
  • Acidosis* – when the arterial blood pH falls below 7.35
  • Alkalosis* – when the arterial blood increases above 7.45
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29
Q

What are “organic molecules”? What is a “hydrocarbon”? Is it active or inactive chemically?

A
  • Organic molecules* are molecules that contain the atoms Carbon and Hydrogen.
  • Hydrocarbon* is an organic compound (as acetylene, benzene, or butane) containing only carbon and hydrogen and often occurring in petroleum, natural gas, coal, and bitumens. The hydrocarbon chain or ring of many organic molecules provides a relatively inactive molecular “backbone” to which more reactive groups of atoms are attached known as functional groups. These groups usually contain O, N, P or S (Sulfur).
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30
Q

What can be added to hydrocarbons to make them more useful in biology?

A
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31
Q

Classes of organic molecules can be named according to the type of “functional group” it has. Be able to not only name, but draw the structures of the 6 functional groups shown in Fig. 2.10

A
  • ** Ketones*** – Carbonyl Group (C is doubled bonded to O)
  • ** Alcohol *** - Hydroxyl Group (OH bonded to end of C)
    • Organic Acids* – Carboxyl Group (C is doubled bonded on O, and OH is bonded to C at the end)
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32
Q

Also, be able to draw and discuss the molecules shown in Figures 2.11 and 2.12

A
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33
Q

What are stereoisomers? What do D- & L- mean? What kind of amino acids can we use? What kind of sugars?

A

Stereoisomer’s are two molecules that have exactly the same atoms arranged in exactly the same sequence yet differ with respect to the spatial orientation of key functional group.

D-isomers (dextro, for right ) and L-isomers (for levo, or left-handed). These ensure that enzymes cannot combine with the wrong stereoisomer. Enzymes of all cells can combine only with L-amino acids and D-sugars. The opposite stereoisomer (D-amino and L-Sugars) cannot be used by any enzyme in metabolism.
Carbohydrates and Lipids

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34
Q

What are the 4 “macromolecules” we find in biology?

A
  • *_ 4 Macromolecules are:_**
    • Starches (*carbohydrates),
    • Lipids* (steroids, glycerol, prostaglands, ketone bodies, phospholipids, )
    • Proteins* (there are 20 amino acids)
    • Nucleic Acids* (DNA deoxyribonucleic acid / RNA ribonucleic acid)
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35
Q

Macromolecules are ___________s made up of many _____________s.

A

Are polymers made up of many monomers.

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36
Q

Why the name “carbohydrate”? What is its general formula?

A

Carbohydrates contain C, H, and O in the ration described by their name carbo and hydrate. CnH2nOn

37
Q

The polymer for carbohydrates is called__________, which is made up of many __________s.

A

Polymer of a Carb is called a polysaccharides and is made of up many monosaccharides

38
Q

What are Monosaccharide, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides?

A
  • Monosaccharide:* Simple sugars.
  • ** Disaccharides:*** two monosaccharides joined to for a double sugar
  • **Polysaccharides: *** when numerous monosacchardies are joined together. Starch is an example
39
Q

What is the suffix for sugars? What are: Trioses? Pentoses? Hexoses?

A
  • -ose* is the suffix for a sugar moleculeTrioses 3-carbon monosaccharide
    Pentoses 5-carbon monosaccharide
    Hexoses 6-carbon monosaccharide
40
Q

What are the names of the 3 most common hexoses?

A

Glucose, Galactose, Fructose (fig. 2.13)

41
Q

What are the names of the 3 most common hexoses?

A

Glucose, Galactose, Fructose (fig. 2.13)

42
Q

What are the names of the 3 most common disaccharides? What is each made of?

A
  • Sucrose* – table sugar – composed of glucose and fructose
  • Lactose* – milk sugar – composed of glucose and galactose
  • ** Maltose*** – malt sugar – composed of two glucose molecules
43
Q

What is “glycogen”?

A

Glycogen (animal starch) is found in the liver muscles, likewise consists of repeating glucose molecules and is used for long-term energy.

44
Q

What chemical process is used to join 2 monomers together to form a larger molecule?

A

**Dehydration synthesis: ** a hydrogen atom is removed from on monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group is removed from another. Covalent bond is formed, water s produced.

Dyhydration synthesis reactions build larger molecule by the bonding together of their subunits.

45
Q

What chemical process is used to separate the molecule into its monomers?

A

Hydrolysis: is the reverse of dehydration synthesis, covalent bond is broken, water molecule is split and the resulting H atom is added to one of the free glucose molecules as the OH group is added to the other.

Hydrolysis digest molecules into their subunits.

lysis = to break.

46
Q

What is the name of the 2 most common chemical reactions found in biology?

A

Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis

47
Q

Be able to explain each of these: Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolysis

A

Dehydration Synthesis is the removal of a hydrogen atom is removed from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group (OH). A covalent bond is formed between the two monosaccharies, water is produced.

Hydrolysis is the reverse of dehydration synthesis. When a covalent bond joining two monosaccharides is broken, a water molecule provides the atoms needed to complete their structure. The water molecule is split, and the resulting Hydrogen atom is added to the free glucose molecule. -lysis = break

48
Q

What kind of “linkage” occurs between sugars in a straight chain? At a branch?

A
49
Q

What is the major property of a lipid? What causes a lipid to have this property?

A

The major property of a lipid is that they are insoluble in polar solvents such as water because of lipids consist primarily of hydrocarbon chains and rings, which are non-polar and therefore hydrophobic.

50
Q

There are actually 4 molecules joined together to form a “triglyceride” what are they?

A

The 4 molecules joined together to form triglyceride are:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and COOH (hydrocarbon, carboxyl group)

51
Q

Be able to draw the structure, as I told you on the board, of a triglyceride.

A
52
Q

What are fatty acids? How do “saturated fats” differ from “unsaturated fats”?

A

Fatty acids are a carboxylic acid, usually derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. Fatty acids are important sources of fuel because when metabolized they yield large quantities of ATP.

Saturated fats have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms, the chain is fully “saturated” with hydrogen atoms.

Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond, where double bonds are formed hydrogen atoms are eliminated.

53
Q

Read the boxed section on “Fitness” dealing with liquid fats.

A

Trans fatty acids, in which the single hydrogen atom bonded to each carbon atom is located on the opposite side of the double bond between the carobs, and the carbon atoms form a straight chain.

54
Q

What are “Ketone bodies”?

A

Ketone bodies are converted by the liver from free fatty acids for an immediate source of energy.

55
Q

Be able to draw the structure of a “phospholipid”.

A
56
Q

What are “micelles” ?

A

* See Fig 2.21* – Micelles are molecules formed because the nonpolar ends of phoholipids are hydrophobic, they tend to group together when mixed in water. This allows the hydrophilic parts (which are polar) to face the surround water molecules.

57
Q

From what molecule are “steroids” made? (Its “parent” molecule!)

A

Steroids are made of from three six-carbon rings joined to one five-carbon ring. Based on the molecule cholesterol.

58
Q

In what gland were “prostaglandins” first discovered?

A

In semen as secretion of the prostate.

59
Q

What is its “parent” molecule of prostaglandins?

A

The parent molecule is arachidonic acid.

60
Q

In what tissues will you find prostaglandins?

What is the name other textbooks use for them?

A

In all organs, as they serve a variety of regulatory functions. Like blood vessel diameter, ovulation, uterine contraction during labor, inflammation reactions, blood clotting.

Eicosanoids

61
Q

What is the name other textbooks use for them?

A
62
Q

Proteins are polymers of _____________s. The polymeric name for proteins is_________.

A

Polymers of polypeptide, monomers amino acids.

63
Q

Be able to draw the structure common to all amino acids. What does the R-group mean?

A

R-Group stands for residue. This is the difference between the 20 different amino acids functional groups.

64
Q

What is the “primary” structure? Secondary? Tertiary? Quaternary? Go to Fig 2.26

A

Primary structure – is the first level of a protein, and the sequence of amino acids

* Secondary structure* – Alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet, is cause when weak H-Bonds form between the hydrogen atom of an amino group and an oxygen atom from a different amino acid nearby. These weak bonds cause the polypeptide chain to assume a particular shape.

Tertiary structure – polypeptide chains bend and fold upon themselves to produce a 3D shape. Formed and stabilized by weak chemical interactions between the functional groups of amino acids. The weak bonds include H-Bonds, Ionic Bonds, and van der Waals (hydrophobic) forces.

Quaternary structure – the formation of a protein by bonding together two or more polypeptide chains. (E.g. hemoglobin and insulin)

65
Q

Which structural level is most important for the function of most proteins?

A

The tertiary structure is the most important level because of the folding.

66
Q

What does “denaturation” mean? What are the 3 major causes of denaturation?

A

Denaturation is when proteins retain their primary structure (the peptide bonds are not broken) but have altered chemical properties. (e.g the fying of an egg).

The 3 major causes of denaturation are: change in temperature, change in Ph, and change in salt concentration.

67
Q

When we say “proteins are conjugated to other molecules”, what do we mean?

A

Proteins are conjugated to other molecules means that proteins are normally found combined with other types of molecules.

68
Q

What are “glycoproteins”? Lipoproteins?

A
  • Glycoproteins:* are proteins conjugated with carbohydrates (e.g. hormones and proteins found in cell membranes.)
  • Lipoproteins:* are proteins conjugated with lipids. These are found in cell membranes and in the plasma.
69
Q

What are some of the functions of proteins play in our body?

A

Structure of tissues (collagen and keratin), Specificity (enzymes and antibodies) , Receptors and carriers for molecules across the membrane, Provide diversity of shape and chemical properties required by these functions.

70
Q

What are the 2 kinds of nucleic acids?

A

DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
Monomer – Nucleotides

71
Q

Both kinds are polymers, what is the name of the polymer?

A

nucleic acids (polymers) and monomer is Nucleotides

72
Q

What is the polymer made of? (What 3 molecules joined together?)

A

5-carbon sugar (pentose), a phosphate group attached to one end of the sugar, and a nitrogenous base attached to the end of the sugar.

73
Q

The sugar in nucleic acids is a 5- carbon__________________.

A

pentose

74
Q

There are 2 types of nitrogenous bases which are__________&___________. Which has 2 rings?

A

Pyrimidines: single ring of carbon and nitrogen, contain Thymine & Cytosine (T,C)

**Purines: ** double ring of carbon and nitrogen, contain Guanine & Adenine (G, A)

These give DNA its double helix. A goes with T, and G goes with C. (law of complementary base paring)

75
Q

What is the name of the pentose used in DNA?________________

A

Deoxyribose

76
Q

What are the names of the 4 n-bases used in DNA?

A

Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine, and Adenine

77
Q

Which of these are pyrimidines?

A

Thymine and Cytosine

78
Q

The DNA is double strands of nucleotides twisted around (coiled) each other. This is also referred to as being a ____________.

A

Double helix

79
Q

Each N- base will only pair up (match with) a single N-base on the other strand. This is called _____________ ________________pairing.

A

Law of complementary base paring, A goes with T and G goes with C.

80
Q

How many base pairs comprise the entire human genome? (how long is the genome?)

A

There are over 3 billion base pairs, which would extend a meter if the DNA molecules were unraveled and stretched.

81
Q

What is the name of the sugar used in RNA?__________

A

Ribose

82
Q

What n-base is used in RNA in place of Thymine?_________

A

Uracil

83
Q

How many strands of nucleotides are found in RNA?

A

Long strands, but not as many as DNA

84
Q

What are the names of the 3 types of RNA?

A

mRNA – messenger RNA
tRNA – transfer RNA
rRNA – ribosomal RNA

85
Q

Be able to contrast the 4 differences between DNA and RNA. (The textbook only lists 3)

A
  • *_DNA _**
    1. very, very, very long Not as long
    2. (S) Deoxyribose
    3. (B) G, C, T, A
    4. Double Helix Single Helix

_ RNA_Add

1. Not as long
 2. (S) ribose
 3. ((B) G, C, U (uracil), A (Thymine is replaced)
 4. Single Helix
86
Q

Surfactants

A

Surface-active agents. E.G prevents the lungs from collapsing due to surface tension forces.

87
Q

What is lecithin?

A

is phospholipid moleuce which is formed when when the phosphate group is attaced to a nitrogen-containing choline.

88
Q

Properties of Proteins

A
  1. Specificity
  2. Competition
  3. Saturation
89
Q

Proteins are either ___ or ____?

A

Peripheral (under the phospholipid bilayer) or integral ( inscribed in the bilayer.

Integral proteins pass entirely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and have domains that go from the outside of the cell to the cytoplasm inside the cell. While peripheral proteins are only on the one side of the lipid bilayer, either the outside of the cell or the cytoplasmic side inside the cell, but not both.

PSY101 (8 decks)

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