Chapter 2- Sources of information Flashcards
Comparison group
Like a control group- will you still get the same effect if compared to a group that didn’t undergo the treatment? Research asks “compared to what?” Personal experience has no comparison group- we won’t know what the outcome would have been if we had or hadn’t done something.
Confounds
Confounds are other explanations for an observation- they “confuse” our interpretation of a result. This occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome, but other things changed at the same time, so you don’t know what the actual cause was. This is why we need a similar baseline in research to make sure outcomes aren’t due to original differences between groups.
Bushman’s study
Study on the effect of catharsis on aggression- it’s a systematic comparison that controls for potential confounds. Had 600 participants write an essay, then had a confederate criticize the essay. Then, an experimental group was asked to punch a punching bag while imagining the confederate’s face, and had a very high level of aggression. The group punching the bag just for exercise had a slightly higher than average amount of aggression. The group that sat quietly had a much lower than average amount of aggression. The group imagining the confederate’s face had the highest level of aggression. This was the catharsis group, so they should have been the most calm if venting aggression actually worked. In this case, what made intuitive sense wasn’t supported by research.
Probabilistic
Behavioral research is probabilistic, which means that its findings are not expected to explain all the cases all the time (there are exceptions). In practice, scientific conclusions are based on patterns that emerge only when researchers set up comparison groups and test many people. Your own experience is only one point in that overall pattern- the research can suggest a strong possibility of an outcome, but your personal experience could be different. That doesn’t invalidate the research.
Ways that intuition could be biased (5)
- We are often swayed by good stories- they seem to make sense
- Availability heuristic
- Present bias
- Confirmation bias
- Bias blind spot
Availability heuristic
Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind- we more vividly remember shocking news or events. Americans are about as likely to die from heart disease as they are from cancer, but people are much more likely to be concerned about cancer. This could be because the media reports on cancer more often. Our attention can be drawn disproportionately to certain events (especially if they annoy us) and lead to overestimation.
Present bias
We tend to remember more when things happen than when they don’t happen (we fail to think about what we can’t see). Example- managing anger. You tend to notice the times when both the treatment (venting) and the desired outcome (feeling better) are present, but don’t notice the times when we didn’t vent and still felt better. In these cases, the treatment was absent but the outcome was still the same.
Confirmation bias
Focusing on evidence we like best- we’re more likely to look for examples to support our beliefs. Without scientific training, we aren’t very rigorous in gathering evidence to test our ideas. As a result, people tend to only gather a certain kind of information and then conclude that their beliefs are supported.
Bias blind spot
Failure to notice your own biases and thinking that you’re objective. Memory can be biased too. This type of thinking makes it difficult to initiate the scientific theory-data cycle, thinking that we already know a conclusion is correct, so we don’t have to test it.
When encountering a news item, what questions should we ask? (4)
- Could this be an example of disinformation?
- Can I cross check this story on some other sites I know are legitimate?
- What is the context of this story?
- Is the journalist politically biased?
Why is experience confounded?
In everyday life, too many things are going on at once. For example, your Himalayan salt lamp might have made you feel better, but maybe you’re also getting regular massages and practicing yoga at the same time. There’s no way to really determine which caused your positive mood. In research, scientists use controls to make sure they’re only changing one factor at a time.
Why can intuition be wrong?
Intuition is using our hunches about what’s “natural” or attempting to think things through “logically”. We believe intuition is a good source of information, but it can lead us to make less effective decisions. Humans are not natural scientific thinkers
Why are we swayed by good stories?
We often accept a conclusion because it feels natural or aligns with “common sense”. Example- the Scared Straight program. Intuitively, it makes sense that young people susceptible to criminal activity would be deterred by stories of people in prison. However, research shows that the program is ineffective and sometimes even causes more crime. Sometimes a good story can be accurate, but often empirical evidence can contradict what your intuition tells you.
What is the difference between the availability heuristic and present bias?
The availability heuristic plays a role in this bias, but the present/present bias adds the tendency to ignore “absent” cells. The outcome considered in the present/present bias isn’t necessarily “shocking” like the availability heuristic. To avoid the present/present bias, ask “compared to what?”.
Empirical journal articles
Report the results of an empirical research study for the first time. They have details about methods, statistical tests used, and the results of the study.
