Chapter 1- Psychology as a way of thinking

Question 1

Psychology

Answer 1

The scientific study of human behaviors and mental processes

Question 2

Empiricism

Answer 2

Using objective methods to analyze your data- relying on your own individual experiences means that they can’t be verified, asking questions and testing theories. The aim is to be systematic and rigorous, and to make their work independently verifiable by other sources- Empiricists don’t base their conclusions on intuitions or on casual observations of their own experiences or others’ experiences.

Question 3

Why is the producer role of research important? (3)

Answer 3

1. For coursework in psychology
2. For working in a research lab
3. For graduate school

Question 4

Why is the consumer role of research important?

Answer 4

When reading printed or online news stories based on research, it’s better to find the original paper. Journalists don’t have a scientific background. It’s also important for your future career when taking an evidence based approach.

Question 5

Characteristics of good scientific theories (4)

Answer 5

1. Supported by data
2. Falsifiable- might not be supported when tested
3. Have parsimony- simple theories are better than complex theories
4. Don’t prove anything- prove implies there is no room for error, want to find support for theory

Question 6

Basic, translational, applied research examples

Answer 6

Basic research- What parts of the brain are active when experienced meditators are meditating?
Translational research- In a laboratory study, can meditation lessons improve college students’ GRE scores?
Applied research- Has our school’s new meditation program helped students focus longer on their math lessons?

Question 7

How do scientists share the results of their research with the scientific community?

Answer 7

Submit it to a scientific journal

Question 8

Benefits of journalism coverage of science

Answer 8

The general public can have access to information. This fulfills the communality norm- science journalism is easy to access and no specialized education is required to understand it.

Question 9

Risks of journalism coverage of science

Answer 9

Journalists don’t have scientific training so they might promote inaccurate information. They might just write about one study and its results rather than analyzing all literature on a specific subject. In their efforts to tell an engaging, clickable story, journalists might overstate the research or get the details wrong. Approaches- reading the original scientific article and maintaining a skeptical mindset when it comes to popular sources.

Question 10

Evidence based treatments

Answer 10

Therapies that are supported by research

Question 11

The theory-data cycle

Answer 11

In the theory-data cycle, scientists collect data to test, change, or update their theories. Example- the weather app on your phone isn’t working. You would form theories about why, ask questions- is it just that app, is there something wrong with the wifi, and update your theories based on these answers.

Question 12

Theory

Answer 12

A set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to each other- Harlow’s theory was that contact comfort was the basis for attachment. Theories lead to questions and to hypotheses about the answers. Often leads to multiple hypotheses, requiring multiple studies to test an entire theory

Question 13

Contact comfort theory (Harlow)

Answer 13

States that babies are attached to their mothers because of the comfort of their warm, fuzzy fur (not just because their mothers give them food). Harlow made 2 “mothers” for baby monkeys to test the theory. One provided food but not comfort, one provided comfort but not food. The time each monkey spent with each mother was recorded (the data). The monkeys spent much more time with the comfort mother, favoring the theory.

Question 14

Hypothesis

Answer 14

A prediction stated in terms of the study design. Harlow’s hypothesis was that babies would spend more time on the comfort mother than the food mother. Usually pre-registered- after the study is designed but before the researcher collects any data, the researcher publicly states what the study’s outcome is expected to be.

Question 15

Data

Answer 15

A set of observations. Harlow’s data were the amount of time the monkeys stayed on each mother. If they match the theory’s hypotheses, they strengthen the researcher’s confidence in the theory. If the data doesn’t match, the results indicate that the theory needs to be revised or the study design needs to be improved.

Question 16

Why don’t studies prove theories?

Answer 16

The word “prove” isn’t used in science. Empirically, we aren’t justified in making generalizations about phenomena we haven’t observed- we haven’t observed all possible situations or all people. When a single study supports a theory, that doesn’t mean it “proves” the theory. We just say that it supports the hypothesis/is consistent with the hypothesis, or is inconsistent with the hypothesis

Question 17

If a study is inconsistent with a theory, does that mean the theory is wrong?

Answer 17

If inconsistent, that doesn’t mean the theory isn’t true- you might want to troubleshoot the study design

Question 18

Replication

Answer 18

The study is conducted again to see whether the results are consistent

Question 19

Weight of the evidence

Answer 19

Scientists evaluate their theories based on the weight of the evidence- the collection of studies, including replications, of the same theory. Harlow’s theory wasn’t “proved”, but it was strongly supported by many other studies

Question 20

Falsifiability

Answer 20

A theory should lead to hypotheses that could fail to support the theory when they are tested. Some pseudoscientific techniques have been based on theories that are not falsifiable- on practices that “only work if they’re not scrutinized”.

Question 21

Self-correcting

Answer 21

Discovering mistaken theories through testing assumptions and correcting the theories

Question 22

Merton’s scientific norms (4)

Answer 22

1. Universalism
2. Communality
3. Disinterestedness
4. Organized skepticism

Question 23

Universalism

Answer 23

Scientific claims are evaluated based on the merit of the claim, not the researcher’s credentials. Anyone can do science even if they don’t have an advanced degree.

Question 24

Communality

Answer 24

Scientific knowledge is created by a community and its findings belong to the community. Scientists should be transparent and freely share the results of their work with the public

Question 25

Disinterestedness

Answer 25

Scientists strive to discover the truth and are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit. Scientists should not be personally invested in whether their hypotheses are supported, spin the story, or allow their beliefs to bias their interpretation or reporting of results.

Question 26

Organized skepticism

Answer 26

Scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and ancient wisdom. They always ask to see the evidence.

Question 27

Applied research

Answer 27

Done with a practical problem in mind, and the research is conducted in a local, real world context. Ex- efficacy of treatment for depression in a sample of trauma survivors

Question 28

Basic research

Answer 28

The goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge rather than to address a specific, practical problem. The knowledge can be applied to real world issues later on. Ex- what are the motivations of a depressed person

Question 29

Translational research

Answer 29

The use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to health care or other forms of treatment intervention. This is a bridge from basic to applied research. Ex- basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia

Question 30

Peer review

Answer 30

The journal editor sends the paper to 3-4 experts on the subject. The editor considers their reviews on the paper and decides whether the paper deserves to be published. Peer reviewers are kept anonymous, so they can be honest without repercussions. Publication can make science self correcting. Other scientists who find flaws in the research can publish letters, commentaries, or competing studies.