Chapter 2: Research Strategies

Question 1

hypothesis

Answer 1

a prediction drawn from a theory

Question 2

naturalistic observation

Answer 2

entering the field or natural environment to record the behavior of interest

Question 3

structured observations

Answer 3

the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display a response

Question 4

event sampling

Answer 4

the observer records all of the instances of a particular behavior during a set time period

Question 5

time sampling

Answer 5

the observer records whether or not certain behaviors occur during a sample of short time intervals

Question 6

observer influence

Answer 6

the effects of the observer on the behavior studied

Question 7

observer bias

Answer 7

When observers are aware of the purposes of a study, they may see and record what they expect to see rather than what participants actually do.

Question 8

clinical interview

Answer 8

researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view.

Question 9

structured interview

Answer 9

each individual is asked the same set of questions in the same way.

Question 10

neurobiological methods

Answer 10

which measure the relationship between nervous system processes and behavior.

Question 11

clinical/ case study method

Answer 11

brings together a wide range of information on one child, including interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes neurobiological measures.

Question 12

ethnography

Answer 12

ethnographic research is a descriptive, qualitative technique. But instead of aiming to understand a single individual, it is directed at understanding a culture or a distinct social group through participant observation.

Question 13

reliability

Answer 13

refers to the consistency, or repeatability, of measures of behavior.

Question 14

validity

Answer 14

they must accurately mea- sure characteristics that the researcher set out to measure.

Question 15

internal validity

Answer 15

is the degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit an accurate test of the researcher’s hypothesis or question.

Question 16

external validity

Answer 16

the degree to which their findings generalize to settings and participants outside the original study.

Question 17

correlational designs

Answer 17

researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, and make no effort to alter their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behavior or development.

Question 18

correlation coefficient

Answer 18

a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other.

Question 19

experimental design

Answer 19

permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions.

Question 20

independent variable

Answer 20

is the one the investigator expects to cause changes in another variable.

Question 21

dependent variable

Answer 21

is the one the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable.

Question 22

confounding variables

Answer 22

so closely associated that their effects on an outcome cannot be distinguished.

Question 23

random assignment

Answer 23

participants are randomly assigned to treatment conditions. By using an unbiased procedure, such as drawing numbers out of a hat or flip- ping a coin, investigators increase the chances that participants’ characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment groups.

Question 24

field experiments

Answer 24

researchers capitalize on opportunities to randomly assign participants to treatment conditions in natural settings.

Question 25

natural/ quasi experiments

Answer 25

Treatments that already exist, such as different family environments, child-care centers, or schools, are compared. These studies differ from correlational research only in that groups of participants are carefully chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible

Question 26

longitudinal design

Answer 26

participants are studied repeatedly at different ages, and changes are noted as they get older.

Question 27

biased sampling

Answer 27

the failure to enlist participants who represent the population of interest.

Question 28

selective attrition

Answer 28

Participants may move away or drop out for other reasons, and those who continue are likely to differ in important ways from those who drop out.

Question 29

practice effects

Answer 29

with repeated testing, participants may become “test-wise.” Their performance may improve as a result of practice effects—better test-taking skills and increased familiarity with the test—not because of factors commonly associated with development.

Question 30

cohort effects

Answer 30

Longitudinal studies examine the development of cohorts— children developing in the same time period who are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing at other times.

Question 31

cross-sectional design

Answer 31

groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time.

Question 32

sequential designs

Answer 32

in which they conduct several cross-sectional or longitudinal investigations (called sequences). The sequences might study participants over the same ages but in different years, or they might study participants over different ages but during the same years

Question 33

microgenetic design

Answer 33

an adaptation of the longitudinal approach, pre- sents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions. Within this “microcosm” of development, researchers observe how change occursr

Question 34

risks-versus-benefits ratio

Answer 34

which involves weighing the costs to participants in terms of inconvenience and possible psychological or physical injury against the study’s value for advancing knowledge and improving conditions of life.

Question 35

protection from harm

Answer 35

If there are any risks to the safety and welfare of participants that the research does not justify, then preference is always given to the research participants.

Question 36

informed consent

Answer 36

people’s right to have all aspects of a study explained to them that might affect their willingness to participate

Question 37

debriefing

Answer 37

in which the researcher provides a full account and justification of the activities, occurs after the research session is over.