Chapter 2 - Philosophical influences on psychology Part 3 Flashcards
1
Q
What was one of the major outcomes of the fall of Rome?
A
- Christianity became widespread, those who weren’t Christians were persecuted
2
Q
What were the Middle Ages referred to in terms of philosophical developments?
A
- ‘The Long Sleep’
- People had short lifespans
- There was a lack of productivity, people were afraid to speak up due to the power of the church
3
Q
What did the University of Bologna represent?
A
- The first university to offer formal higher education in Europe (1088)
- Scholars took advantage of this
4
Q
Who was Thomas Aquinas?
A
- Known as the “Angelic Doctor” or the “Great Dumb Ox of Sicily”
- Born to an aristocratic noble family
- Sent to nearby Monte Cassino to study
- Eventually became a Benedictine monk
- Chose a life of service (poverty)
- His mother disagreed… brothers kidnapped him and held him for a year
- Very pious soft-spoken, and cheerful
- Earned a doctorate at the University of Paris
5
Q
What did St. Thomas Aquinas think when he reviewed the works of Aristotle?
A
- Concluded that Aristotle was consistent with Chrisitian theology (i.e., no corruption)
- Was almost too successful integrating his philosophy (i.e., couldn’t be questioned)
- Convinced religious leaders that Aristotle can strengthen your faith, which backfired as people thought the Bible coroborated with Aristotle
6
Q
What was Aristotle’s Scala naturae?
A
- Indicated that forms of life could be differentiated on their abilities
- Plants = self-nutrition
- Animals = self-nutrition and sensation
- Humans = self-nutrition and sensation plus the ability to think
*Similar to sentiments in the bible
7
Q
What was Aquinas’ “Great Chain of Being”?
A
- How he argued for parallels of Catholicism with Aristotle’s work
- All animals are ranked in a hierarchy, with humans at the top in God’s image
- This order was designed by God
- Evidence comes from the bible, and is God’s plan
8
Q
Why was Aquinas relevant to psychology?
A
- His goal was to strengthen belief in faith but this had the opposite effect
- His writings put a greater focus on ‘reason’ (i.e., knowledge comes from sensation and perception)
- His work strengthened beliefs in rationalism and empiricism (people were reading more philosophy)
9
Q
Who was Johannes Gutenberg?
A
- Invented the printing press which was the first means of mass dissemination
- Was a big deal for religious texts
- Ancient Greek texts were now being read more widely
10
Q
Who was Francis Bacon?
A
- Born in London to a well-off family
- Trained as a lawyer, and was elected to the British parliament (this was most of his life)
- Mandatory retirement at age 60, turned his attention to philosophy and science
- Came to be known as the key authority of the ‘new science’
- Died of pneumonia after stuffing a chicken with snow
11
Q
What did Baconian science entail?
A
- Insisted on induction
- Science should not include any pre-conceived ideas
- Believed that Aristotle was biased due to having a theory already in mind
-Relied solely on observation in nature - This approach became to be known as Positivism
12
Q
What were Bacon’s Four Idols of the Mind (also called errors)?
A
- Idols of the cave - personal biases we have based on genetic inheritance, education, experiences
- Idols of the tribe - biases due to human nature; we see things the way we want to (i.e., confirmation biases, the fundamental attribution error)
- Idols of the Marketplace - Biases due to the meaning of words. Words or labels skew our observations of ideas or events (ex. names of authority)
- Idols of the Theater - A logical fallacy which states we have a blind spot for our allegiance (i.e., we refuse to intake info that refutes what we already believe in)
13
Q
What were Bacon’s contributions to psychology?
A
- First to highlight biases in observation
- Emphasized the need for understanding cause-and-effect relationships for applied knowledge
- His inductive approach was later adopted by Skinner and the behaviourists
14
Q
Who contributed most to the development of empiricism?
A
- Descartes
- Wrote extensively on mathematics and physics
15
Q
What are the general details of Descartes life?
A
- Mother died just after birth
- Was a physically weak and sick child
- Age 8, sent to a Jesuit school to study math
- Teachers permitted him to lie in bed and read for hours on end (continued this as an adult)-
- As a young adult, spent time in Paris, but eventually turned to a life of solitude
- Spent several years travelling, and then lived in Holland (avoiding Protestant radicals)
- Took a mistress and had a daughter who died at age 5 (chose celibacy after)
16
Q
What’s Descartes death story?
A
- Died after being commissioned to be the Queen Christina of Sweden to be her instructor
- Died of pneumonia from the early morning lessons
- Body eventually returned to France, but finger was kept in Sweden as a souvenir
17
Q
What’s the First Principle of Descartes’ philosophy?
A
- I think, therefore I am
- Translated from “Cogito, ergo sum”
- It was contained in “Discourse on the Method” and “Principles of Philosophy
18
Q
What were the three main insights that helped Descartes resolve mind-body dualism?
A
- He should not trust his senses, since they often lead to the wrong conclusion (i.e., we each have our own reality)
- The fact that he has thoughts, indicates for certain, that he is ‘something’ (i.e., I exist in the world; I think therefore I am)
- He could envision that thoughts would still exist, even if the body did not
19
Q
What was Descartes proposed solution for the mind-body problem?
A
- Pre-Descartes - Most people thought they were distinct
- Descartes proposed the mind and body are joined
- Believed that the mind influences the body, but the body also influenced the mind (more so that previously assumed)
- Descartes was a dualist
20
Q
How did Descartes describe the nature and function of the body?
A
- He was influenced by the mechanistic spirit of his times
- Believed that because the human body was made of matter, it is governed by the laws of the physical world
21
Q
How did Descartes describe the body like a machine?
A
- The nerves are like pipes
- The muscles are like engines
- The tendons are like springs
22
Q
What’s the Reflex Action Theory?
A
- Developed by Descartes
- The idea that an external object can bring about an involuntary response (ex. doctor knee tap)
- Precursor to stimulus-response (S-R) psychology
- Descartes suggested that human behaviour is predictable as a result, and therefore could be studied empirically
23
Q
How did Descartes describe interactionism?
A
- Interactionism - mind and body are separate but interact
- Mind is created by God
- Body is basically a machine
- Interaction occurs through the pineal gland (called the seat of the soul)
24
Q
How does Descartes describe interaction between mind and body?
A
- Caused by animal spirits that move through nerve tubes (i.e., neural transmission) and make an impression on the pineal gland
- The mind then creates and impression (i.e., storing a memory). So body influences the mind
- The opposite can occur. The mind can make an impression on the pineal gland, which then sends animal spirits to the body (i.e., top-down processing)
25
Q
What are the two types of ideas that Descartes described the mind producing?
A
- Derived ideas - produced by the direct application of an external stimulus (i.e., anything in the environment, like the idea of a chair triggered by looking at a log)
- Innate ideas - ideas that arise from the mind or consciousness, independent of sensory experiences or external stimuli (i.e., God, the Self, perfection, and infinity). Makes us different from other animals
26
Q
What were some of Descartes major contributions to psychology?
A
- The genesis of stimulus-response and behaviourism
- The study of consciousness
- Reflex actions
Localization of mental functions - Innate ideas
- Furthering the mind-body debate
- Did not test his contributions using empiricism, but got the ball rolling for other philosophers
27
Q
Who was Auguste Comte?
A
- 200 years after Descartes
- Taught philosophy to numerous scientists, but not an academic
- Suffered from mental illness and dementia
- Introduced Positivism
28
Q
What’s Positivism?
A
- Popularized by Auguste Comte
- Recognizes only natural phenomena or facts that are objectively observable
- A rejection of the subjective and the metaphysical (i.e., scientists should not discuss the soul)
- Comte was a hardcore atheist
29
Q
What are the major principles of British empiricism?
A
- One of the most influential groups in Western psychology
- Knowledge comes from experience (there are numerous forms of experience)
- Primary data is gathered from the senses
- Propositions about the world are based on how sensory experiences are interpreted (i.e., context is important; like social psychology)
30
Q
Who was John Locke?
A
- Born to a land owner (rich)
- Lived through a civil war, which shaped his political views
- Attended Oxford university, later taught there for over 30 years
- Coup against King Charles II
- Fled to Holland, where he wrote “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding”
31
Q
What did John Locke think of Descartes’ innate ideas?
A
- Disagreed with Descartes
- Did not think we are born with innate ideas instilled by God
- If this were true, all humans would have the same ideas
- All knowledge comes from experience, parents, etc.
32
Q
What major concept was John Locke obsessed with?
A
- Concerned with how the mind acquires knowledge
- Liked Aristotle’s “Tabula Rasa” (blank slate)
- Suggested we are taught ideas
- Ideas come from: Sensation and reflection (today would be perception)
33
Q
How did John Locke describe sensation and reflection?
A
- Sensation - Derived from direct sensory input; always appear first; sensory inputs from the environment lead to sense impressions
- Reflection - A group of sense impressions combine to form higher-level ideas
34
Q
What were John Locke’s simple and complex ideas?
A
Simple ideas:
- Elementary ideas that arise from sensation and reflection
- They are basic, and cannot be subdivided into other ideas
Complex ideas:
- Derived ideas that are compounded of simple ideas and can be reduced to smaller components
35
Q
What’s John Locke’s Theory of Association?
A
- Knowledge results from linking or associating simple ideas to form complex ideas
- An early theory of learning
- Noted that there are sequences of ideas. Some ideas appear to ‘go along’ with others. One idea appears, and then a related idea appears (supporting the idea of nodes in memory)
36
Q
What’s the difference between primary and secondary qualities according to John Locke?
A
- Both are features of our physical world
- Primary qualities - characteristics that exist whether or not we perceive them; they never change (e.g., size and shape)
- Secondary qualities - Exist in our perception of the object (e.g., color and odor; a tickle caused by a feather)
37
Q
What was Locke’s Paradox of the Basins?
A
- There are three basins of hot water: (A) One hot, (B) one cold, and the other (C) warm
- Place a hand in A, other in B
- Then place both in C
- The ‘hot’ hand will feel cold and vice versa
- ‘Warm’ water doesn’t change but the temperature did (secondary quality)
38
Q
What were some of Locke’s thoughts concerning education?
A
- Nurture was more important than nature
- Avoid harsh punishment in the classroom
- Teachers should make learning pleasant
- Teach concepts in pieces
- Praise the child’s accomplishments (not their character)
- Hardening: have children sleep on hard beds and discourage crying
39
Q
Who was George Berkeley?
A
- Born in Ireland
- Attended Trinity College in Dublin as a teenager
- Became an Anglican deacon in his twenties
- Bishop of Cloyne in County Cork, Ireland
- UC Berkeley named after him
40
Q
What did Berkeley disagree with Locke on?
A
- Thought that only secondary qualities exist
41
Q
What was Berkeley’s idea regarding mentalism?
A
- All knowledge is a function of mental phenomena and dependent on the perceiving/experiencing person (i.e., we can never really agree on anything being the same)
- We can never truly know the physical properties of an object
- Our reality is perception, nothing more
42
Q
What was Berkeley’s Association of Sensations?
A
- Applied principles of association to real world
- Each sense provides a unique idea (piece of information)
- Ex. The different types of associations that come to mind when people think of sledding (some may enjoy the feel of the sleigh, some may not)
43
Q
Who was James Mill?
A
- Major father-son duo
- Born in Scotland, son of a shoemaker
- Very demanding mother, strict regimen of studying
- Studied at University of Edinburgh, was a Presbyterian preacher, then a teacher
- Collaborator of Jeremy Bentham (a well-known philosopher of the time)
44
Q
What was James Mill’s major idea concerning the function of the mind?
A
- Adamant that the mind was simply a machine, where emotions are just noise
- Predictable and mechanical in function, like a clock
- External forces set off internal forces in the mind
- Therefore, the mind is passive in nature
- No such thing as free will
45
Q
What were James Mill’s ideas concerning Associationism?
A
- Association is also mechanical
- Sensations come together to produce an idea mechanically
- These ideas happen in the same order as corresponding sensations
46
Q
Which two factors did James Mill think altered the strength of associations?
A
- Vividness - more vivid sensations (i.e., think memory recall)
- Frequency - more frequent pairing of sensations
47
Q
Who was John Stuart Mill?
A
- Son of James Mill
- Difficult childhood
- Raised using Associationism
- ‘Blank slate’, constant tutoring
- Learned Greek by age 3, algebra by 8
- Was raised as a ‘logical machine’ with many bouts of depression
- Household without love, only fear
48
Q
What was John Stuart Mill’s relationship with Harriet Taylor?
A
- Met Harriet Taylor when he was 25
- She was married with children, had a close platonic relationship for 20 years
- They married after she was widowed, but she died at 50, a few years later
- Built a cottage near her grave
- Developed a platonic relationship with Helen, Harriet’s daughter
- They promoted feminism and equality
49
Q
What were John Stuart Mills ideas concerning mental chemistry?
A
- Complex ideas not summations of simple ideas (against his father’s ideas)
Rather, creative synthesis: - Complex ideas formed from simple ideas also take on new qualities
- Combination of mental elements creates something greater than elements
- Much like chemistry (i.e., in baking, the individual ingredients don’t taste well
50
Q
What were J. S Mill’s ideas on human nature?
A
- Thought that cognitions, emotions, behaviour are difficult to predict on their own
- Context is important; we don’t always know what social situation the person will be placed in (linked to social psychology)
- There are many ‘secondary causes’ from the environment
- We can deduce some likely behaviours based on sensations and associations
51
Q
What was J. S. Mill’s activities as a social reformer?
A
- Believed that science would prove equality between sexes
- Wrote “The Subjection of of Women”
- Credited as the first ‘liberal’
- Utilitarianism like his father and Bentham. Means you should seek pleasure in like, but thought intellectual pleasures were superior to physical; limit the influence of others (ex. the King, government)
52
Q
What were the major contributions that British empiricism made to psychology?
A
- Primary role of the process of sensation
- Analysis of conscious experience into mental elements
- Synthesis of elements into complex mental experiences through the process of association
- Focus on conscious processes
