Chapter 2: Pheromones and behavior

Question 1

Pheromone

Answer 1

Chemical substances responsible for chemical communication – they carry stimulation and affect behavior.

Sex pheromones undoubtedly exist in animals, though the effects of pheromones on human behavior is uncertain.

Question 2

Localization of processing of smell/pheromones

Answer 2

Ordinary smells are processed in the main olfactory bulb, and pheromonal information is processed in the vomeronasal organ (VNO) which is connected to the accessory olfactory bulb [both located in the anterior nasal cavity].

However, this only goes for animals, as humans do not have the VNO nor the accessory olfactory bulb (fetuses and some people have, though they do not function).

Question 3

Lundstrom & Olsson (2005)

Answer 3

Studied the effect of androstadienone (derivative testosterone and a chemical component of sweat). The study involved studying a woman’s mood after being exposed to either the androstadienone or a control solution in the presence of a male or female experimenter. Results showed an increased mood in women amongst a male experimenter while under the influence of androstadienone (no effect when the experimenter was female).

Question 4

Hare et al (2017)

Answer 4

Aimed at investigating whether androstadienone (AND) and estratetraenol (EST) signal gender and affect male perception. Repeated measure design: heterosexual participants completed two computer-based tasks twice on two consecutive days. While completing the task, they were exposed to either AND or EST, or just the control scent. The participants were then to look at five gender-neutral facial morphs. In the second task, participants were shown opposite-sex photographs and asked to rate the attractiveness (1-10). Results showed no impact of AND and EST on the rating of attractiveness, from which it can be concluded that they are not sex pheromones.

Question 5

Cutler, Friedmann, and McCoy (1998)

Answer 5

Aimed at investigating whether synthesized male pheromones increase the sociosexual behavior of men. 38 men were recruited through specific requirements. Participants were randomly divided into two groups. They brought their aftershave lotion and would shave regularly throughout the study period. They had to fill out daily behavior-related questions regularly. First, they had baseline tests, to see where everyone was in terms of the behavior questions. The aftershave lotions would then be added either ethanol or the pheromone. Results showed that there were significantly more men in the pheromone group who had an increase in some sociosexual behaviors.

Question 6

McCoy and Pitino (2002)

Answer 6

Similar to Cutler. Conducted a study with female subjects: 36 females who menstruated regularly. Either the synthesized pheromone or a placebo was added to their perfume. Seven sociosexual behavior were recorded weekly (same as Cutler). Significant increase in the pheromone group in such behaviors as intercourse. The study concluded that the synthesized pheromone increased the sexual attraction of women to men.

Question 7

What are some of the criticisms for studying human pheromones?

Answer 7

• Population validity. Always young, educated participants used due to self-selected samples.
• Demand characteristics
• Ecological validity. The concentration of the pheromone is usually much higher.
• Internal validity. Other smells act as confounding variables.
• Experimenter bias. The gender, looks and behaviour of the experimenter can impact the results.
• Construct validity. Many chemicals that are not pheromones can also impact human behaviour.
• Ethics.
• Replicability. Studies on pheromones have struggled with this.