Chapter 2 Note Packet: Flashcards
The tendency to perceive an outcome that has occurred as being obvious and predictable is called ….
Hindsight bias
Hindsight bias is common in both ………
Children and adults
our everyday thinking is also limited by ……….. in what we think we know -
Overconfidence
Most people are ………. in predicting their social behavior -
Equally wrong
The scientific approach is characterized by the attitudes of ……. and ………. and ……..
Curiosity, skepticism, humility
Cause and effect =
Scientific method
Scientific inquiry thus encourages reasoning that examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions, which is called …….
Critical thinking
Psychological science uses the ……… to evaluate competing ideas -
Scientific method
Psychologists make careful observations and form theories, which are based on ……..
New observations
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events is a -
Theory
Testable predictions that allow a scientists to evaluate a theory are called -
Hypothesis
Hypothesis predictions give direction to …..
Research
To prevent theoretical bias from influencing scientific observations, research must be reported precisely - by using clear …….
Operational definitions
The ….. is the extent to which it effectively organizes a reports and observations and implies clear predictions -
test of a useful theory
Psychologists conduct research by using ……..
Descriptive, correlation, experimental methods
The research strategy in which one or more individuals is studied in depth to reveal universal principles of behavior is the ……..
Case study
An oral survey =
Interview
Although case studies can suggest hypothesis for further study, a problem w/ this method is that any given individual may be ……. -
Atypical
The method in which a group of people is questioned about their attitudes or behavior is the ……
Survey
An important factor in the validity of surgery reassert is the order and …… of questions -
Wording
We are more likely to overgeneralize and make other mistaken judgements from select samples that are especially ……
Vivid
Surveys try to obtain a ……
Random sample
In such a sample, every person has a chance of being …..
Included
Large, representative samples are better than …… ones -
Small
The research method in which people or animals are directly observed in their natural environments is called ….
Naturalistic observation
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations do NOT explain …….
Behavior
Case studies, surveys, and obersvations simply describe ….
Behavior
Most people are more likely to laugh in ……. situations than in ……. situations -
Social
Solitary
The pace of life ……. from one culture to another -
Varies
When changes in one factor are accompanied by changes in another, the two factors are said to be …., and one is thus able to predict -
Correlated
When changes in one factor are accompanied by changes in another, the two factors are said to be correlated, and one is thus able to predict -
This is called …..
Correlation coefficient
A graphical representation of a correlation coefficient relationship is called …..
A scatter plot
If two factors increase or decrease together they are …..
Positively correlated
In one decreases as the other one increases they are …..
Negatively correlated
Another way to state the latter is that the two variables relate ……
Inversely
A negative correlation between two variables does not indicate the …… or weakness of the relationship. -
Strength
Correlation does NOT prove …..
Causation
Correlation merely indicates the possibility of a. ……… relationship -
Cause - effect
A correlation between two events or behaviors means only that one event can be …… from the other -
Predicted
A correlation does not mean that one …… the other -
Caused
Correlation thus does not enable …..
Explanation
A perceived correlation that does not really exist is an ……
Illusory correlation
People are more likely to notice ad recall events that ….. their beliefs -
Confirm
Another common tendency is to perceive oder in ……
Random events
Patterns and streaks in random sequences occur more often than people expect, and they do not appear …..
Random
To isolate cause and effect, researches ……. control for other factors -
Statistically
Breast-fed infants …… grow up with higher intelligence scores than those of infants who are bottle-fed -
Do
By using this method and randomly assigning participants to groups, a researcher manipulates the factor of interest while holding …… other factors -
Constant
If a behavior changes when an experimental factor is varied, the researcher knows the factor is having an ….
Effect
When neither the participants nor the person collecting the data knows which condition a particular participant is in, the researcher is making use of the ……….. procedure -
Double-blind
Researchers sometime give certain participants a pseudotreatment called a -
Placebo
When merely thinking that one is receiving a treatment produces results, a …………. is said to occur -
Placebo effect
An experiment must involve two groups -
Experimental
Control
Group in which people receive the experimental treatment -
Experimental
Group in which they do not receive the treatment -
Control
To ensure the two groups are identical, experimenters rely on the ………… of individuals to the experimental conditions -
Random assignment
The factor that is being manipulated in an experiment -
Independent variable
Other factors that may influence the results are called -
Confounding variables
The measurable factor that may change as a result of an experiments manipulations is called the ….
Dependent variable
Aim of an experiment is to …….
Manipulate independent v
Measure dependent v
Control all other v
Researchers use these to help them see and interpret their observations -
Statistics
Once researchers organize data, they must …
Organize them
One simple way of visually representing data is to use a. ……
Bar graph
It is import to read the scale labels and note the …… to avoid being misled by misrepresented data -
Range
3 measures of central tendency -
Mean
Median
Mode
Most frequently occuring score in distribution is called the -
Mode
The mean is computed as the …. of all the scores divided by the ….. of scores
Sum
Number
The median is the score at the …… percentile -
50th
When a distribution is lopsided or skewed, the ….. can be biased by a few extreme scores
Mean
Averages derived from scores w/ ….. variability are more reliable than those w/ ….. variability -
Low
High
The measures of variation include the ….. and the ………..
Range
Standard deviation
Range is computed as the difference between ……….. scores -
Highest and lowest
This provides a crude estimate of variation because it is influenced by extreme scores -
The range
The …….. is a more acccurate measure of variation than range -
Standard deviation
Unlike the range, the standard deviation does use info from …….
Each score in the distribution
Symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which most scores fall near the mean w/ fewer and fewer near the extremes –
Normal curve
It is safer to generalize from a ……. sample than from a biased sample-
Representative
Average scores are more reliable when they are based on scores w/ ………..
Low variability
Small samples provide a ……. reliable basis for generalizing than large samples -
Less
The differences are probably real if the sample averages are …… and the difference between them are relatively ……
Reliable
Large
Psychologists concern is not w/ specific behaviors but w/ the underlying theoretical ……
Principles
Psychologists conduct experiments to ………
Gain control over the variables in the “real world”
It refers to the enduring ideas, behaviors, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and passed on from one generation to the next -
Culture
Although specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, the underlying processes are the …..
Same
Similarities between the genders far outweigh ….
Differences
Psychologists study animals because of the similarities between ……. and other animals-
Humans
These studies of animals have led to treatments for ……….. and to a better understanding of human functioning -
Human diseases
Some people question whether experiments w/ animals are ….
Ethical
Opposition to animal experimentation also raises the question of what ……. should protect the well-being of animals -
Safeguards
The ethical principle that research participants should be told enough about the research to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate is……..
Informed consent
Another import principle is that participants should be fully ……. once the researched is finished -
Debriefed
Psychologists …….. influence their theories, observations, and professional advice
Do
……. can be used to manipulate people, its purpose is to enlighten -
Psychology