Chapter 2 - Memory

Question 1

define coding

Answer 1

the format by which information enters and is stored in the memory

Question 2

outline research into coding

Answer 2

Baddeley - study of coding using word lists, found condition with acoustically similar words did worse - STM coded for acoustically
LTM p’s performed worse at reading semantically similar words

Question 3

evaluate Baddeley’s research into coding

Answer 3

artificial stimuli, lacks realism due to lack of meaning, no generalisability

Question 4

define capacity

Answer 4

amount of information that can be held in memory store

Question 5

outline research into capacity

Answer 5

Jacob’s (1800’s) found digit span of STM was 9.3 for digits and 7.3 for letters
Chunky Miller, observed chunking of information and suggested STM span of 7+/- 2

Question 6

evaluate research into capacity

Answer 6

• lacks validity, Jacob’s study was in 1800’s and had little control, subject to confounding variables
• Miller overestimates span of STM, Cowan (2001) suggested its closer to 4 chunks more accurate

Question 7

define duration

Answer 7

length of time information is held in the memory store

Question 8

outline research into duration

Answer 8

Peterson and Peterson, trigrams, rehearsal prevention found 18s duration STM
Bahrick - yearbook recall, free recall 60% within 15 years and 30% after 48, photo recognition 90% within 15 years and 70% after 48

Question 9

evaluate research into duration

Answer 9

• artificial, meaningless stimuli in P&P, lacks external validity
• Bahrick higher external validiity, however no control of confounding variables

Question 10

name the 3 main stores of memory in the multi-store model of memory

Answer 10

sensory register
STM
LTM

Question 11

evaluate the multi-store model of memory

Answer 11

• research support for STM and LTM being separate e.g. Baddeley
• case study of KF showed more than one type of STM since he couldn’t recall audio but had no problem with visual recall
• more than one type of rehearsal, Craik and Watkins showed elaborative most effective for LTM
• artificial stimuli in lab studies, lowers external validity
• more than one type of LTM e.g. procedural

Question 12

state the 3 types of LTM

Answer 12

Semantic
procedural
episodic

Question 13

evaluate types of LTM

Answer 13

• clinical evidence, case studies of Clive wearing show procedural mem separate
• empirical evidence, brain scans by Tulving et al found left prefrontal cortex = semantic and right = episodic
• real-life application, enable specific treatments to be developed for impairment
• case-studies, generalisability? brain damaged people
• Cohen and squire argued semantic and episodic are one called declarative memory

Question 14

name the 6 major features of the WMM

Answer 14

sensory memory
central executive
visuo-spatial sketch pad
episodic buffer
articulatory control
phonological store

Question 15

evaluate the WMM

Answer 15

• clinical evidence, case studies such as KF, only his phonological loop damaged
• dual task performance, Baddeley showed more difficult when two tasks involve same slave system
• lack of clarity over function of CE, even Baddeley unsure
• processing, doesnt show how tie or practice improve processing ability
• still used/being developed today

Question 16

define interference

Answer 16

forgetting when one memory blocks another

Question 17

define proactive interference

Answer 17

old memories disrupt new ones

Question 18

define retroactive interference

Answer 18

new memories disrupt old

Question 19

evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting (4)

Answer 19

• lab evidence (McGeoch and McDonald) shows its a strong, valid explanation with good internal validity
• artificial task, lacks external validity
• real-life studies e.g. Baddeley and Hitch rugby players
• Tulving and Psotka showed cues can overcome interference

Question 20

define encoding specificity principle

Answer 20

if cues is to help with recall it must be present at encoding

Question 21

define context-dependent forgetting

Answer 21

forgetting due to external factors

Question 22

define state-dependent forgetting

Answer 22

forgetting due to internal factors

Question 23

outline research into context dependent forgetting

Answer 23

Godden and Baddely - showed in and out of water recall/ learning. found greater recall 40% higher in matching conditions

Question 24

outline research into state dependent forgetting

Answer 24

Carter and Cassaday - showed on antihistamine/not learning/recall. found greater recall in matching conditions

Question 25

evaluate retrieval failure theory

Answer 25

• good supporting evidence e.g. Godden and Baddeley or Carter and Cassaday
• questioning context effects - Baddeley rgues context not very strong since in and out of water are very different to highlight effect but in reality context varies little
• recall vs recognition - presence or absence of cues only affects when tested in a certain way
• real-life application , such as remembering things when returning to place for victims of crime

Question 26

outline research into leading q’s

Answer 26

Loftus and Palmer - changed verd to describe car accident shown in film
5 groups, 5 verbs
found answers average for ‘contacted’ was 31.5 mph but for ‘smashed was 40.5mph’

Question 27

outline research into post event discussion

Answer 27

Gabbert studied p’s in pairs, showing each a different prespective of the same crasha dn allowing them to discuss after. on a recall test 71% of p’s recalled information they did not see compared to 0% in control group

Question 28

evaluate misleading information

Answer 28

• useful real-life applications, improvements to the criminal justice system
• artificial tasks means low external validity
• individual differences, old worse than young at EWT
• demand characteristics, people guess answers if they don’t know
• less consequence of recall in lab

Question 29

outline research supporting anxiety’s negative effect on EWT

Answer 29

Johnson and Scott - 2 conditions heard heated argument then one saw greasy pen man and other saw paper knife blood man. found in 33% accuracy of recall in high anxiety condition comapared to 49% in low anxiety. explained by weapon focus effect

Question 30

outline research supporting anxiety’s positive effect on EWT

Answer 30

Yuille and Cutshall - interviewed people from real shooting in shop in canada 4-5 months after event. found that those who reported highest levels of anxiety performed best in recall of events

Question 31

which law seeks to explain the contradictory evidence surrounding anxiety?

Answer 31

the Yerkes-Dodson law

Question 32

evaluate the effect of anxiety on EWT

Answer 32

• weapon focus effect may not be relevant, Pickel study shows unusualness is cause not anxiety
• field studies lack control, e.g. post event discussions
• ethics of intentionally making p’s anxious
• Y-D law too simplistic, anxiety hard to measure
• demand characteristics

Question 33

state the 4 main techniques used in the cognitive interview

Answer 33

• report everything
• reinstate context
• reverse the order
• change perspective

Question 34

what is the enhanced cognitive interview?

Answer 34

focuses on the social dynamics of the interaction

Question 35

evaluate the cognitive interview

Answer 35

• very time consuming, requires special training for police
• Milne and Bull showed some elements more helpful than others, 1&2
• support, meta analysis by Kohnken et al
• variations used by police, adapt for each force
• creates a 61% increase in inaccurate information but also 81% increase in accurate