Chapter 2 - Memory Flashcards
define coding
the format by which information enters and is stored in the memory
outline research into coding
Baddeley - study of coding using word lists, found condition with acoustically similar words did worse - STM coded for acoustically
LTM p’s performed worse at reading semantically similar words
evaluate Baddeley’s research into coding
artificial stimuli, lacks realism due to lack of meaning, no generalisability
define capacity
amount of information that can be held in memory store
outline research into capacity
Jacob’s (1800’s) found digit span of STM was 9.3 for digits and 7.3 for letters
Chunky Miller, observed chunking of information and suggested STM span of 7+/- 2
evaluate research into capacity
- lacks validity, Jacob’s study was in 1800’s and had little control, subject to confounding variables
- Miller overestimates span of STM, Cowan (2001) suggested its closer to 4 chunks more accurate
define duration
length of time information is held in the memory store
outline research into duration
Peterson and Peterson, trigrams, rehearsal prevention found 18s duration STM
Bahrick - yearbook recall, free recall 60% within 15 years and 30% after 48, photo recognition 90% within 15 years and 70% after 48
evaluate research into duration
- artificial, meaningless stimuli in P&P, lacks external validity
- Bahrick higher external validiity, however no control of confounding variables
name the 3 main stores of memory in the multi-store model of memory
sensory register
STM
LTM
evaluate the multi-store model of memory
- research support for STM and LTM being separate e.g. Baddeley
- case study of KF showed more than one type of STM since he couldn’t recall audio but had no problem with visual recall
- more than one type of rehearsal, Craik and Watkins showed elaborative most effective for LTM
- artificial stimuli in lab studies, lowers external validity
- more than one type of LTM e.g. procedural
state the 3 types of LTM
Semantic
procedural
episodic
evaluate types of LTM
- clinical evidence, case studies of Clive wearing show procedural mem separate
- empirical evidence, brain scans by Tulving et al found left prefrontal cortex = semantic and right = episodic
- real-life application, enable specific treatments to be developed for impairment
- case-studies, generalisability? brain damaged people
- Cohen and squire argued semantic and episodic are one called declarative memory
name the 6 major features of the WMM
sensory memory central executive visuo-spatial sketch pad episodic buffer articulatory control phonological store
evaluate the WMM
- clinical evidence, case studies such as KF, only his phonological loop damaged
- dual task performance, Baddeley showed more difficult when two tasks involve same slave system
- lack of clarity over function of CE, even Baddeley unsure
- processing, doesnt show how tie or practice improve processing ability
- still used/being developed today
define interference
forgetting when one memory blocks another
define proactive interference
old memories disrupt new ones
define retroactive interference
new memories disrupt old
evaluate interference as an explanation for forgetting (4)
- lab evidence (McGeoch and McDonald) shows its a strong, valid explanation with good internal validity
- artificial task, lacks external validity
- real-life studies e.g. Baddeley and Hitch rugby players
- Tulving and Psotka showed cues can overcome interference
define encoding specificity principle
if cues is to help with recall it must be present at encoding
define context-dependent forgetting
forgetting due to external factors
define state-dependent forgetting
forgetting due to internal factors
outline research into context dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddely - showed in and out of water recall/ learning. found greater recall 40% higher in matching conditions
outline research into state dependent forgetting
Carter and Cassaday - showed on antihistamine/not learning/recall. found greater recall in matching conditions
evaluate retrieval failure theory
- good supporting evidence e.g. Godden and Baddeley or Carter and Cassaday
- questioning context effects - Baddeley rgues context not very strong since in and out of water are very different to highlight effect but in reality context varies little
- recall vs recognition - presence or absence of cues only affects when tested in a certain way
- real-life application , such as remembering things when returning to place for victims of crime
outline research into leading q’s
Loftus and Palmer - changed verd to describe car accident shown in film
5 groups, 5 verbs
found answers average for ‘contacted’ was 31.5 mph but for ‘smashed was 40.5mph’
outline research into post event discussion
Gabbert studied p’s in pairs, showing each a different prespective of the same crasha dn allowing them to discuss after. on a recall test 71% of p’s recalled information they did not see compared to 0% in control group
evaluate misleading information
- useful real-life applications, improvements to the criminal justice system
- artificial tasks means low external validity
- individual differences, old worse than young at EWT
- demand characteristics, people guess answers if they don’t know
- less consequence of recall in lab
outline research supporting anxiety’s negative effect on EWT
Johnson and Scott - 2 conditions heard heated argument then one saw greasy pen man and other saw paper knife blood man. found in 33% accuracy of recall in high anxiety condition comapared to 49% in low anxiety. explained by weapon focus effect
outline research supporting anxiety’s positive effect on EWT
Yuille and Cutshall - interviewed people from real shooting in shop in canada 4-5 months after event. found that those who reported highest levels of anxiety performed best in recall of events
which law seeks to explain the contradictory evidence surrounding anxiety?
the Yerkes-Dodson law
evaluate the effect of anxiety on EWT
- weapon focus effect may not be relevant, Pickel study shows unusualness is cause not anxiety
- field studies lack control, e.g. post event discussions
- ethics of intentionally making p’s anxious
- Y-D law too simplistic, anxiety hard to measure
- demand characteristics
state the 4 main techniques used in the cognitive interview
- report everything
- reinstate context
- reverse the order
- change perspective
what is the enhanced cognitive interview?
focuses on the social dynamics of the interaction
evaluate the cognitive interview
- very time consuming, requires special training for police
- Milne and Bull showed some elements more helpful than others, 1&2
- support, meta analysis by Kohnken et al
- variations used by police, adapt for each force
- creates a 61% increase in inaccurate information but also 81% increase in accurate
