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Developmental Biology > Chapter 2 - How Development Works > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - How Development Works Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is embryonic development?

A

Embryonic development involves the conversion of a single cell, the fertilized egg, into a complex organism consisting of many anatomical parts

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2
Q

What are the five types of process that occur in embryonic development?

A
  1. Regional specification
  2. Cell differentiation
  3. Morphogenesis
  4. Growth
  5. Developmental time
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3
Q

What are determinants?

A

Regulatory molecules deposited in particular positions within the fertilized egg

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4
Q

Explain the process of Regional Specification

A

Deals with how pattern appears in a previously similar population of cells. The cells in different regions need to become programmed to form different body parts such as the head, trunk, and tail. The initial steps usually involve determinants, while the later steps usually involve embryonic inductions.

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5
Q

What are embryonic inductions?

A

Intracellular signaling events which lead to the upregulation of different combinations of developmental control genes in each zone of cells. (Book)

Chemical signals that control the pathways of development of cells within the embryo. (Net)

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7
Q

What is cell differentiation?

A

Refers to the mechanism whereby different sorts of cells arise. Each cell type owes its special character to particular proteins coded by particular genes. The study of cell differentiation deals with the way in which these genes are upregulated and how their activity is subsequently maintained.

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8
Q

What is a blastula (blastoderm, blastosphere)

A

An early embryonic form produced by cleavage of a fertilized ovum and consisting of a spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity.

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9
Q

Morphogenesis

A

Refers to the cell and tissue movements that give the developing organ or organism it’s shape in three dimensions.

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10
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers throughout the cell’s cytoplasm that helps the cell maintain its shape and gives support to the cell.

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11
Q

Growth

A

Refers to both the overall increase of size of the organism, and to the control of proportion between body parts.

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12
Q

Developmental time

A

The period from egg fertilization to emergence of the adult.

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13
Q

Gametes

A

A mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.

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14
Q

What is the process of meiosis?

A

Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number if chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells.

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15
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A threadlike linear strand of DNA and associated proteins in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells that carries the genes and functions in the transmission of hereditary information.

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16
Q

Briefly explain the process of fertilization.

A

The process by which male and female gametes fuse to form a fertilized egg, or zygote.

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17
Q

What is a zygote?

A

A diploid cell formed by the union if two haploid gametes.

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18
Q

Cleavage

A

..

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19
Q

Gastrulation

A

…

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20
Q

Germ layers

A

…

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm

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21
Q

Ectoderm

A

….

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22
Q

Mesoderm

A

…

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23
Q

Endoderm

A

…

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24
Q

Extraembryonic

A

…

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25
Q

Anteroposterior

A

..

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26
Q

Cytoplasmic determinants

A

..

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27
Q

Transcription factors

A

..

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28
Q

Symmetry breaking

A

..

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29
Q

Spermatozoon

A

Commonly referred to as sperm. Male gamete. Small and motile

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30
Q

Ovum

A

Commonly known as the egg. Female gamete. Large and immotile

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31
Q

Haploid

A

(1n) half the number of homologous chromosome sets in the nucleus.

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32
Q

Diploid

A

(2n) 2 sets of homologous chromosomes in the nucleus.

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33
Q

Germ cells

A

..

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34
Q

Germ line

A

..

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35
Q

Somatic

A

..

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36
Q

Germ plasm

A

..

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37
Q

Polar granules

A

..

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38
Q

Pole plasm

A

..

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39
Q

Gonad

A

..

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40
Q

Sex determination

A

..

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41
Q

Gametogenesis

A

..

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42
Q

Hermaphrodite

A

..

43
Q

Chromatids

A

..

44
Q

Bivalents

A

..

45
Q

Crossing over

A

..

46
Q

Oogenesis

A

The process of formation of eggs.

47
Q

Oogonia

A

..

48
Q

Oocyte

A

..

49
Q

Primary oocyte

A

..

50
Q

Secondary oocyte

A

..

51
Q

Yolk

A

..

52
Q

Nurse cells

A

..

53
Q

Ovulation

A

..

54
Q

Germinal vesicle

A

..

55
Q

Spermatogonia

A

..

56
Q

Polar bodies

A

..

57
Q

Progenitor cells

A

..

58
Q

Polyspermy

A

..

59
Q

Cortical granules

A

..

60
Q

Zygote

A

..

61
Q

Animal hemisphere

A

..

62
Q

Vegetal hemisphere

A

..

63
Q

Cleavages

A

..

64
Q

Blastomeres

A

..

65
Q

Maternal effects

A

..

66
Q

Meroblastic

A

..

67
Q

Holoblastic

A

..

68
Q

Macromeres

A

..

69
Q

What are von Baer’s laws?

A
  1. The general features of a large group of animals appear earlier in development than do the specialized features of a small group
  2. Less general characteristics develop from the more general, until finally the most specialized appear.
  3. The embryo of a given species, instead of passing through the adult stages off lower animals, departs more from them.
  4. The early embryo of a higher animal is never like a lower animal, but only like its early embryo.
70
Q

Female oogenesis vs Male spermatogenesis

A
  1. In females, Meiosis is initiated once in a finite population of cells; in males, meiosis is initiated continuously in a mitotically dividing stem cell population.
  2. One gamete is produced per meiosis for females; four gametes produced per meiosis for males.
  5. 6.
71
Q

Micromeres

A

..

72
Q

Spermatocytes

A

..

73
Q

Spermatids

A

..

74
Q

Spermiogenesis

A

..

75
Q

What are the primary functions of the male reproductive system?

A

1.

76
Q

What are the primary functions of the female reproductive system?

A
  1. Production of female hormones
  2. Formation of the ovum
  3. Development of the offspring
77
Q

What is the role of the oocyte?

A
  1. Provide a haploid nucleus
  2. Provide the energy for cell division
  3. Provide the directions for cell division
78
Q

What types of cellular components are stored in the mature oocyte?

A

Mitochondria, RNA poly erases, DNA polymerase, ….

79
Q

Multi-nucleated cell syncitium

A

?

80
Q

Ovulation

A

..release of egg

81
Q

Cytoplasmic determinants

A

Cytoplasmic determinants are the substances in the maternal gamete that affect the course of early development by regulating gene expression. These molecules of mRNA, proteins, and other substances and organelles are distributed randomly and unevenly across the egg. This is significant because after the egg is fertilized, the nuclei that results from mitotic division is then exposed to different cytoplasmic environments.

82
Q

Follicular phase

A

..

83
Q

Luteal phase

A

Formation of the..

84
Q

Menstrual cycle

A

..

85
Q

Fertilization

A

…

86
Q

Process of ejaculation

A
  1. Erectile tissue engorged with blood.

2. Rapid contraction

87
Q

Long dangerous swim: Part 1

A
  1. Vagina is acidic
  2. Sperm packed closely for protection
  3. 1/4 die
  4. Begin swimming after a few minutes
  5. Immune cells hunt sperm
  6. Only about 100,000 sperm make it to cervix
88
Q

Part 2:

A

Cervix secrets “fertile mucus” (protein strands to guide sperm)

2.

89
Q

Sperm caps capacitation

A
  1. Cholesterol removed from sperm membrane
  2. Carbohydrates and proteins on surface receptor removed (block recognition sites?)
    3.
90
Q

How do the sperm and egg recognize one another?

A
  1. Chemoattraction
  2. Acrosomal digestion
    3.
91
Q

What is polyspermy?

A

More than one sperm in egg?

92
Q

How is ployspermy prevented?

A

Fast block: change in electric potential of egg surface (may not occur in mammals); occurs in a couple of seconds.

Slow block: cortical granule reaction;

  1. Executors is of cortical granules
  2. Osmotic gradient leads to fert envelope
  3. Proteases clips binding receptors
  4. Hardening of envelope
  5. Hyalin layer produced
93
Q

What happens when there is too little sperm?

A

Not all eggs get fertilized

94
Q

What happens when there is too much sperm?

A

Eggs die from polyspermy

95
Q

How is the genetic material from both the sperm and egg fused in other animals/mammals?

A
  1. Sperm nucleus decondenses

2.

96
Q

What is the difference between diploid and haploid cells?

A

A diploid cell includes both homologues; it is in the 2N state, meaning there is an even number of chromosomes. A haploid cell has half the number of chromosomes as the diploid cell; it is in the N state. There is one member of each pair of homologues in a haploid cell. The number of chromosomes MAY be odd.

97
Q

What are the three germ layers formed from gastrulatiom? What later forms from each of these three layers?

A

Ectoderm - skin epithelium, nervous system
Mesoderm - muscles, bones, kidneys, reproductive parts
Endoderm - epithelium (lining) of digestive system and respiratory tract

98
Q

What is the difference between the animal hemisphere and the vegetal hemisphere?

A

The animal hemisphere is the top of the egg or cell mass; the vegetal pole is the bottom and usually has more yolk.

99
Q

What is the difference between a primary oocyte and a secondary oocyte?

A

Primary oocyte will undergo meiosis I; the secondary oocyte will undergo meiosis II.

100
Q

What is the difference between holoblastic cleavage and meroblastic cleavage?

A

In holoblastic cleavage, the entire (whole) egg is cleaved (although the cleavages may be unequal).

In meroblastic cleavage, usually only the animal hemisphere completely divides; the yolky vegetal pole does not completely divide but remains “acellular”.

101
Q

What is the difference between proximal and distal structures?

A

Proximal structures are near the main axis of the body, while the distal structures are distant from the main axis of the body. In an arm, the bicep is more proximal than the more distal fingers.

102
Q

Basal lamina

A

..

108
Q

When is an oocyte mature?

A
  1. Increased in size

2.

Developmental Biology (4 decks)

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