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Biological Anthropology > Chapter 2 - Genetics > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Genetics Flashcards

1
Q

Gregor Mendel

A

Slovakian Monk who studied the variance of traits in peas between 1856-1863, notable for experiments with the coloration of peas

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2
Q

variants

A

Different forms (expressions) of a trait

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3
Q

crosses

A

Mating two individuals to produce offspring

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4
Q

F0 Generation

A

In genetic experiments, a term used to refer to the original (founding) generation

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5
Q

F1 Generation

A

In genetic experiments, the offspring of the founding (F0) population; the second generation

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6
Q

F2 Generation

A

In genetic experiments, the offspring of the second (F1) generation; the third generation

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7
Q

Mendel’s two principles

A

1) The observed characteristics of organisms are determined jointly by two particles (later named genes by T.H. Morgan), one inherited from the mother and one from the father.
2) Each of these two particles, or genes, is equally likely to be transmitted when gametes (eggs and sperm) are formed. Now known as independent assortment

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8
Q

independent assortment

A

Each gene has an equal probability to be transmitted to gametes (eggs and sperm) during their production

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9
Q

genes

A

A molecular unit of heredity of a living organism, inherited equally from mother and father, named by American geneticist T.H. Morgan

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10
Q

gametes

A

Eggs and sperm, the cells that fuse during fertilisation

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11
Q

chromosomes

A

Small linear bodies contained in every cell which are replicated during cell division.

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12
Q

nucleus (plural nuclei)

A

A membrane enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells containing most of the cells genetic material, organised as multiple long linear DNA molecules

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13
Q

eukaryote

A

An organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes, such as a nucleus and a chromosome, accounting for all complex life forms

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14
Q

mitosis

A

The process of ordinary cell division, creating two copies of the chromosomes present in the nucleus

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15
Q

diploid

A

Organisms whose chromosomes come in homologous pairs

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16
Q

homologous pairs

A

In chromosomes, pairs whose members have similar shapes and staining patterns

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17
Q

meiosis

A

Special cell division process that produces gametes, wherein only half of the chromosomes are transmitted from the parent cell to the gamete

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18
Q

haploid

A

Cells containing only one copy of each chromosome, such as gametes - contrast with diploid cells, which contain a homologous pair of chromosomes

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19
Q

zygote

A

Diploid cell formed by the unification of two haploid gametes, one from the mother (egg) and one from the father (sperm). Subsequent mitosis of this cell produces a new individual

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20
Q

allele

A

Different varieties of a particular gene

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21
Q

homozygous

A

Individuals with two copies of the same allele

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22
Q

heterozygous

A

Individuals with two different alleles

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23
Q

genotype

A

The particular combination of genes or alleles that an individual carries

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24
Q

phenotype

A

The observable characteristics of an organism, such as the colour of the peas in Mendel’s experiments

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25
Q

recessive

A

An allele (trait) that has no effect on phenotype (expression of trait) in heterozygotes (individuals with two different alleles present)

26
Q

crossing over

A

The act of a damaged chromosome recombining to a new genotype during meiosis, creating novel combinations of genes not seen in the parent

27
Q

independent segregation

A

Traits whose probabilities of expression are not affected by the presence of other traits. Mendel believed all traits behaved as such, however it is now known that it occurs mainly when the genes of the traits being measured reside on different chromosomes

28
Q

locus (plural loci)

A

The particular site on a particular chromosome where the genes will be read to control a particular trait

29
Q

genome

A

All of the genes from every chromosome present in an organism

30
Q

linked traits

A

When loci for multiple traits occur on the same chromosome

31
Q

unlinked trait

A

When loci for multiple traits occur on different chromosomes

32
Q

DNA

A

A structurally complex molecule located in the nucleus, whose chemical composition make up genes

33
Q

the four bases of DNA

A

Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

TA; GC pairings only

34
Q

protein coding sequence

A

Genes that specify the structure of proteins, many of which are enzymes

35
Q

enzyme

A

Proteins that regulate much of the biochemical machinery of organisms by catalysing some chemical reactions but not others

36
Q

regulatory sequences

A

Genes that determine the conditions under which the message encoded in a protein coding gene will be expressed, plays a crucial role in shaping the differentiation of cells during development

37
Q

biochemical pathways

A

The complex chemical reactions that occur in organisms where reactions of particular molecules of the substrate (molecular intake of a cell as a whole) are catalysed into different products by enzymes

38
Q

protein

A

Chains of amino acids

39
Q

amino acids

A

Molecules that make up proteins, 20 different types exist, all sharing the same chemical background but differing in chemical composition of the side chain connected to the backbone

40
Q

primary structure

A

In proteins, the unique sequence of amino acid side chains

41
Q

tertiary structure

A

The three-dimensional shape of a folded protein

42
Q

haemoglobin

A

A protein that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues via red blood cells

43
Q

sickle-cell anaemia

A

Condition common in West Africans caused by a single change in the primary sequence of amino acids in the haemoglobin molecule, where the sixth amino acid (normally glutamic) is substituted for valine

44
Q

codon

A

Three letter “words” of bases in DNA, each of which specifies a particular amino acid. Because there are four bases there 64 possible three-letter combinations, of these 61 are used to create the 20 amino acids that make up proteins

45
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic acid, similar to DNA except as a slightly different chemical back bone, the bace uracil is substituted for thymine. Comes in several forms, many of which aid in protein synthesis

46
Q

uracil

A

Thymine substitute in RNA (denoted U)

47
Q

messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

Transcript of DNA which takes genetic information out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm

48
Q

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

Bound to mRNA in the cytoplasm, releasing it’s attached amino acid to grow the protein chain

49
Q

ribosomes

A

Cellular organelles composed of RNA and protein, binding mRNA and tRNA to synthesise protein chains

50
Q

prokaryote

A

An organism that does not have a chromosome or nucleus, examples are bacteria and archaea

51
Q

introns

A

Non-coding sequences of DNA

52
Q

exons

A

Protein coding sections of DNA

53
Q

repressor protein

A

Protein that binds to a regulatory sequence, prevents protein coding genes from being transcribed

54
Q

activator protein

A

Protein that binds to DNA to increase it’s rate of transcription

55
Q

combinatorial control

A

Multiple regulatory sequences that, under the right specific conditions, all activate to express certain genes

56
Q

spliceosomes

A

Organelles that splice mRNA after the introns have been snipped out

57
Q

monogenic trait

A

each gene has a distinct biological effect

58
Q

polygenic trait

A

many genes contribute to a single genetic effect

59
Q

pleiotropy

A

a single gene has multiple effects

60
Q

founder effect

A

change in allele frequency due to small size of original population

Biological Anthropology (7 decks)

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