Chapter 2: Current Paradigms in Psychopathology Flashcards
What are the three paradigms that guide the study and treatment of psychopathology?
genetic, neuroscience, and cognitive behavioral paradigms
What is a paradigm?
a set of basic assumptions and a general perspective that defines how to conceptualize and study a subject
What are genes?
the carriers of genetic information (DNA) passed from parent to child
How many genes do people have?
20,000 to 25,000
What is gene expression?
the switching on and off of the reading of genes into their products (proteins) and thus their associated phenotypes
What does polygenic mean?
caused by multiple genes contributing their effects, typically during multiple stages of development
What is heritability?
the extent to which variability in a behavior/disorder within a population can be attributed to genetic factors (not individual!!!)
What are shared environment factors?
factors that family members have in common, such as income level, child-rearing practices, and parental marital status and quality
What are nonshared environment factors?
factors distinct among family members, such as relationships with friends or significant experiences unique to a person
What is behavior genetics?
the study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior (not the study of how genes or the environment determine behavior)
What is a genotype?
the total genetic makeup of an individual consisting of inherited genes
What is a phenotype?
the totality of observable physical characteristics and behavioral traits of an individual; the product of interactions between genetics and the environment over the course of development
Who did a study demonstrating the heritability of IQ?
Turkheimer
What is the influence of environment on IQ among different socioeconomic groups?
lower SES: more variability in IQ attributable to environment
higher SES: less variability in IQ attributable to environment
What is molecular genetics?
seeks to determine the components of a trait that are heritable by identifying relevant genes and their functions
What are alleles?
different forms of the same gene that are found at the same locus (location) of a chromosome pair
What is a genetic polymorphism?
a difference in DNA sequence on a gene that has occurred in a population
What are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?
differences between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a particular gene
What are the most common polymorphisms in the human genome?
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
What are copy number variations (CNVs)?
variation in gene structure involving copy number changes in a defined chromosomal region
What is an addition CNV?
where extra copies are abnormally present
What is a deletion CNV?
where extra copies are missing
What percentage of the human genome contains CNVs?
5%
What are spontaneous (de novo) mutations?
mutations that are not inherited from parents; can appear for the first time in an individual
What are genome-wide association studies (GWAS)?
studies of variations in the entire human genome to identify associations of genetic variants with particular behaviors, traits, or disorders; large sample sizes needed for these types of studies
What is gene-environment interaction?
the influence of genetics on an individual’s sensitivity or reaction to an environmental event
What is epigenetics?
the study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function
What epigenetic marks control gene expression and can be influenced by the environment?
chemical marks such as DNA methyl tags or histones
What is the neuroscience paradigm?
theoretical view that holds that psychological disorders are caused in part by some aberrant process directed by the brain
What is a neuron?
a nerve cell
What are the four major parts of the neuron?
- cell body
- dendrites
- axons
- terminal buttons at the end of axon
What is a synapse?
a small gap between two neurons where the nerve signal passes from the axon of the first neuron to the dendrites, cell body, or axon of the second
What are synaptic vesicles?
small structures in the terminal buttons of each axon that are filled with neurotransmitters
What are neurotransmitters?
chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron
What is reuptake?
cellular process by which released neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic cell, terminating their present postsynaptic effect but making them available for subsequent modulation of nerve impulse transmission
If neurotransmitters aren’t taken back through reuptake, what happens to them?
they are broken down by enzymes
What is dopamine?
CNS neurotransmitter; a catecholamine that is a precursor of norepinephrine and apparently figures in schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease
What is serotonin?
a neurotransmitter of the CNS whose disturbances apparently figure in depression
What is norepinephrine?
a catecholamine neurotransmitter, disturbances of which have been related to mania, depression, and anxiety disorders ; is a strong vasoconstrictor
What is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)?
inhibitory neurotransmitter that may be involved in the anxiety disorders
What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
the division of the nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; innervates endocrine glands, smooth muscle, heart muscle, and initiates the physiological changes that are part of the expression of emotion
What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
fight or flight - contracts blood vessels, reduces activity of intestines, increases heartbeat, dilates pupils, sweating
What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
rest and digest - controls many internal organs and is active primarily when the organism is not aroused (however, the pns increases blood flow to genitals during sexual excitement)
What is gray matter?
the neural tissue that constitutes the cortex covering the cerebral hemisphere, nuclei in lower brain areas, columns of spinal cord, and ganglia of ANS
What are gyri?
the ridges in the cortex
What are sulci?
the depressions between the gyri
Where is the frontal lobe located?
in front of the central sulcus
Where is the parietal lobe located?
behind the central sulcus; above the lateral sulcus
Where is the temporal lobe located?
below the lateral sulcus
Where is the occipital lobe located?q
behind the parietal and temporal lobes
What is the prefrontal cortex?
region in the very front of cortex that helps to regulate the amygdala; helps maintain an image of threats and rewards faced
What is white matter?
neural tissue on the interior of brain, consisting of tracts or bundles of myelinated (sheathed) nerve fibers
What are ventricles?
cavities in the brain filled w/ cerebrospinal fluid
What is the anterior cingulate?
the anterior portion of the cingulate gyrus
What is the hippocampus?
the long, tubelike structure that stretches from septal area into the temporal lobe; associated w/ memory
What is the hypothalamus?
regulates metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping, and appetite
What is the amygdala?
subcortical structure of temporal lobe involved in attention to emotionally salient stimuli and memory of emotionally relevant events
Which areas of the brain develop the quickest?
areas linked to sensory processes; cerebellum and occipital lobe
Which area of the brain develops last?
the frontal lobe
What is pruning?
the selective loss of synaptic connections, especially in the fine-tuning of brain regions devoted to sensory processing
What are brain networks?
clusters of brain regions that are connected to one another as indicated by correlations between activation in these regions when people perform certain types of tasks or are at rest
When is the frontoparietal network activated?
when people are doing cognitive tasks
When is the default-mode network activated?
when people are daydreaming or thinking about the future and recalling memories
What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?
the neuroendocrines connections among hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex, central to the body’s response to stress
When people are faced with threat, what does the hypothalamus release?
corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)
What does the pituitary gland release in response to threat?
adrenocorticotropic hormone
What hormone is released by the adrenal cortex?
cortisol
What is cortisol?
a “stress hormone” secreted by the adrenal cortices; helps the body prepare to face threats
How long does it take for cortisol to release to peak?
20-40 minutes
What are cytokines?
proteins which help initiate bodily responses to infection such as fatigue, inflammation, and activation of the HPA axis
What are pro-inflammatory cytokines?
cytokines that produce helpful inflammation and have been linked to different psychological disorders such as depression and schizophrenia
How do antidepressants work?
increase neural transmission in neurons that use serotonin as a neurotransmitter by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin
What is reductionism?
the view that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements; when scientists try to reduce complex mental and emotional responses to biology
What is the cognitive behavioral paradigm?
the general view that people can be best understood by studying how they perceive and structure their experiences and how this influences behavior
What is a time-out?
an operant conditioning procedure in which, after bad behavior, the person is temporarily removed from a setting where reinforcers can be obtained and placed in a less desirable setting (such as a boring room)
What is behavioral activation (BA) theory?
clinical approach to depression that seeks to increase participation in positively reinforcing activities
What is exposure treatment?
based on the idea that anxiety will extinguish if the person can face the object or situation long enough with no actual harm occurring (ex: take person scared of planes on flight)
What is imaginal exposure?
exposure treatment in which situations cannot be replicated (ex: rape, trauma, contamination)
What was one main criticism of behaviorism and behavioral therapy?
minimizing the importance of thinking and feeling
What is cognition?
the process of knowing; the thinking, judging, reasoning, and planning activities of the human mind
What is a schema?
a mental structure of organizing information about the world
What is implicit memory?
the idea that a person can unconsciously be influenced by prior learning
What is cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)?
behavior therapy that incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes such as thoughts, perceptions, judgements, self-statements, and unconscious assumptions; a blend of both the cognitive and behavioral paradigms
What is cognitive restructuring?
any behavior therapy procedure that attempts to alter the manner in which a client thinks about life so that he or she changes overt behavior and emotions
Who developed a cognitive therapy for depression based on the idea that depressed mood is caused by distortions in the way people perceive life experiences?
Aaron Beck
What are “third wave” behavioral treatments?
extensions of behavioral therapy and CBT that often focus on incorporating spirituality, values, emotion, and acceptance
What are emotions?
the expression, experience, and physiology that guide responses to problems and challenges in the environment; short-lived states
What percentage of psychological disorders includes disturbances in emotional processing of some kind?
85%
Which word is used to describe short-lasting emotional feelings?
affect
What are moods?
emotional experiences that endure for a longer period of time
What does the expressive/behavioral component of emotion refer to?
facial expressions of emotion
What does the experience/subjective feeling component of emotion refer to?
how someone reports they feel at any given moment or in response to some event
What does the physiological component of emotion refer to?
changes in the body, such as those due to the ANS activity that accompany emotion
What is ideal affect?
the kinds of emotional states that a person ideally wants to feel
What is the Japanese term that refers to a condition where a person completely withdraws themself from the social world?
hikikomori
What is social neuroscience?
seeks to understand what happens in the brain during complex social situations
What is the object relations theory?
focuses on the way children internalize images of the people who are important to them, such that these internalized images become part of the ego and influence how the person reacts to the world
Who first proposed the attachment theory?
John Bowlby
Who developed a method to measure attachment styles in infants?
Mary Ainsworth
What is attachment theory?
the type or style of an infant’s attachment to their caregivers can set the stage for psychological health or problems later in development
What is the relational self?
refers to the self in relation to others; people will describe themselves differently depending on the close relationships they have been asked to think about
What is interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)?
a short-term, here-and-now focused psychological treatment initially developed for depression and influenced by the psychodynamic emphasis on relationships
What are the four interpersonal issues examined in IPT?
- unresolved grief
- role transitions
- role disputes
- interpersonal or social deficits
What is the diathesis-stress paradigm?
assumes that individuals predisposed toward a particular psychological disorder will be particularly affected by stress and will then manifest abnormal behavior
What is diathesis?
predisposition toward a disorder - can be genetic, neurobiological, or psychological
