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Anatomy & Physiology I > Chapter 2 — Chemistry of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 2 — Chemistry of Life Flashcards

1
Q

Introduction

biochemistry

A

the study of the molecules that compose living organisms

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2
Q

Introduction

biochemistry is useful for understanding…

A

cellular structures, basic physiology, nutrition, and health

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3
Q

Introduction

4 types of macromolecules

A

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids

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4
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

element

A

simplest form of matter with unique chemical properties

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5
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

atomic number

A

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

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6
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

the periodic table is arranged by…

A

atomic number

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7
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

__ elements have a biological role

A

24

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8
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

name the 6 elements that makeup 98.5% of body weight

A 
oxygen
carbon
hydrogen
nitrogen
calcium
phosphorus
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9
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

nucleus

A

center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons

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10
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

electron shells

A

surround the nucleus

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11
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

protons

A

positive charge (+)

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12
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

neutrons

A

no charge (neutral)

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13
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

electrons

A

negative charge (-)

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14
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

__ determine the chemical properties of an atom

A

electrons

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15
Q

the atom is electrically neutral because…

A

the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons

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16
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

electrons occupy an orderly series of __

A

electron shells (energy levels)

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17
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

the 1st electron shell holds __ electrons, the 2nd holds __, and the 3rd holds __

A

2; 8; 8

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18
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

an atom with a full outer energy level is __/__ and referred to as a __

A

very stable/unreactive; inert/noble gas

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19
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

examples of noble gases

A

helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar)

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20
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

atoms with unfilled outer energy levels are relatively __/__

A

unstable/reactive

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21
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

unstable atoms __ bond with other atoms

A

will

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22
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

stable atoms __ bond with other atoms

A

will not

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23
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

unstable atoms can achieve stability by…

A

sharing, gaining, or losing electrons

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24
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

valance electrons

A

located in the outermost shell; interact with other atoms; determine the chemical bonding properties of an atom

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25
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

atomic mass = __ + __

A

protons + neutrons

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26
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

isotope

A

atom with a different number of protons and neutrons

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27
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

isotopes of an element exhibit the same __ behavior, but differ in __ behavior because…

A

chemical; physical; extra neutrons increase the atomic weight but do not change the charge because they are neutral

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28
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

many isotopes are unstable and decay to more stable isotopes by…

A

giving off radiation

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29
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

radioisotopes

A

unstable isotopes that give off radiation

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30
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

every element has at least one __

A

radioisotope

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31
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

radioactivity

A

radioisotopes decay to stable isotopes by releasing radiation

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32
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

we are all mildly __

A

radioactive

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33
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

madame curie

A
  • first woman to receive nobel prize (1903)
  • first woman in world to receive a ph.d.
  • coined term radioactivity
  • discovered radioactivity of polonium and radium
  • trained physicians in use of x-rays and pioneered radiation therapy as cancer treatment
  • died of radiation poisoning at age 67
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34
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

ions

A

charged particles with an unequal number of protons and electrons

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35
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

ionization

A

transfer of electrons from one atom to another, which increases the stability of the valence shell

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36
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

anion

A

atom that gained electrons and has a net negative charge

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37
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

cation

A

atom that lost electrons and has a net positive charge

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38
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

ions with __ charges are attracted to each other

A

opposite

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39
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

electrolytes are important for…

A
  • chemical reactivity
  • osmotic effects (influence water movement)
  • electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue
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40
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

__ is one of the most important considerations in patient care

A

electrolyte balance

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41
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

possible effects of electrolyte imbalance

A

muscle cramps, brittle bones, coma, cardiac arrest

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42
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

free radicals

A

unstable chemical particles with an odd number of electrons that can damage cells, causing illness and aging

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43
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

free radicals are produced by…

A

normal metabolic reactions, radiation, and chemicals

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44
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

antioxidants __ free radicals and are present in our diet in things such as…

A

neutralize; selenium, vitamin e, vitamin c, and carotenoids

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45
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

molecule

A

two or more atoms held together by a chemical bond; example: N2

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46
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

compound

A

molecules composed of two or more different elements; example: CO2

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47
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

molecular formula

A

shows elements and how many atoms of each are present; example: C2H6O

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48
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

structural formula

A

shows the location of each atom and reveals structural isomers; example:

      H
       |
H - C - H
       |
      H
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49
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

isomer

A

molecules with identical molecular formulae but different arrangement of their atoms (structural formula); example: ethanol and ethyl ether

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50
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

chemical bonds

A

forces that hold molecules together, or attract one molecule to another

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51
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

3 types of chemical bonds

A

hydrogen (weakest)
ionic
covalent (strongest)

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52
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

ionic bond

A

the attraction of oppositely charged ions; an electron is donated by one and received by the other; example: sodium chloride

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53
Q

ionic bonds are __ because…

A

weak; easily dissociate in water

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54
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

covalent bond

A

formed by sharing of valence electrons

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55
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

types of covalent bonds

A

single
double
nonpolar
polar

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56
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

single covalent bond

A

one pair of electrons are shared; example: H2

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57
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

double covalent bond

A

two pairs of electrons are shared; example: CO2

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58
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

nonpolar covalent bond

A

electrons are shared equally between two atoms; strongest of all bonds

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59
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

polar covalent bond

A

electrons are shared unequally between atoms

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60
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

hydrogen bond

A

a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another

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61
Q

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

hydrogen bonds occur in…

A

water molecules, DNA, proteins

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62
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

energy

A

capacity to do work

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63
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

work

A

to move something; all body activities are a form of work

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64
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

potential energy

A

stored energy; not doing work at the time; example: water behind a dam

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65
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

chemical energy

A

potential energy stored in the molecular bonds

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66
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

kinetic energy

A

the energy of motion; actively doing work; example: moving water flowing through a dam

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67
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

heat

A

kinetic energy of molecular motion

68
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

chemical reaction

A

a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken

69
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

chemical equation

A

symbolizes the course of a chemical reaction; reactants –> products

70
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

classes of chemical reactions

A

decomposition reactions
synthesis reactions
exchange reactions

71
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

decomposition reactions

A

large molecules broken down into smaller ones; AB –> A + B; example: carbohydrate metabolism (starch molecule broken into individual glucose molecules)

72
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

during decomposition reactions, a chemical bond is __ and energy is __, which is called a __ reaction

A

broken; released; exergonic

*our cells use this energy

73
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

synthesis reactions

A

two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one; A + B –> AB; example: protein synthesis (amino acids form a protein molecule)

74
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

synthesis reactions need __ to form their bonds and are therefore called __ reactions

A

energy; endergonic

75
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

exchange reactions

A

two molecules exchange atoms or a group of atoms; AB + CD –> ABCD –> AC + BD
*molecules cannot be lost, only rearranged

76
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

reversible reactions

A

can go in either direction; CO2 + H20 <=> H2CO3 <=> HCO3- + H+

77
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

during oxidation, the molecule __ and __ energy
the molecule becomes __ in this process
the accepting molecule is the __, and is often __

A

gives up electrons; releases
oxidized
oxidizing agent; oxygen

78
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

during reduction, the molecule __ and __
the molecule is __ when it accepts electrons
the donating molecule is the __

A

gains electrons and energy
reduced
reducing agent

79
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

during redox reactions, electrons are often transferred as __ atoms; each atom is equal to one __

A

hydrogen; electron

80
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

catabolism

A

the sum of all decomposition reactions in the body; exergonic

81
Q

Energy and Chemical Reactions

anabolism

A

the sum of all synthesis reactions in the body; endergonic

82
Q

Inorganic Compounds

inorganic compound

A

does not contain carbon and hydrogen as their primary structural ingredients

83
Q

Inorganic Compounds

list the four inorganic compounds

A

water
acids
bases
salt

84
Q

acid

A

a solute that dissociated to release hydrogen ions and shift pH toward acidity

85
Q

Inorganic Compounds

base

A

a solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution shifting the pH to basic or alkaline

86
Q

Inorganic Compounds

salt

A

reaction of an acid with a base

87
Q

Inorganic Compounds

a mixture consists of substances that are __ blended but not __ combined

A

physically; chemically

88
Q

Inorganic Compounds

our body fluids are complex mixtures of __ and __

A

chemicals; water

89
Q

Inorganic Compounds

water is __-__% of body weight

A

50-75%

90
Q

Inorganic Compounds

structure of water

A

atoms joined by polar covalent bonds; molecule is v-shaped

91
Q

Inorganic Compounds

solvency

A

ability to dissolve other chemicals

92
Q

Inorganic Compounds

solution = __ + __

A

solvent + solute

93
Q

Inorganic Compounds

solvent

A

liquid in which a solute is dissolved

94
Q

Inorganic Compounds

solute

A

what is being dissolved in the solvent

95
Q

Inorganic Compounds

hydrophilic

A

charged substances that dissolve easily in water; water loving

96
Q

Inorganic Compounds

hydrophobic

A

neutral substances that do not easily dissolve in water; water fearing

97
Q

Inorganic Compounds

water is a __

A

universal solvent

98
Q

Inorganic Compounds

chemical reactivity of water

A

the ability to participate in chemical reactions

99
Q

Inorganic Compounds

water ionizes into __ and __

A

H+ and OH-; water also ionizes other chemicals (acids and bases)

100
Q

Inorganic Compounds

water is involved in __ and __ reactions

A

hydrolysis; dehydration synthesis

101
Q

Inorganic Compounds

solutions

A

a mixture of a solute into a solvent; small solute particles pass through cell membranes; the solution is transparent and remains mixed

102
Q

Inorganic Compounds

colloids

A

a mixture of protein and water; solidifies within and between cells; the particles are too large to pass through cell membranes; the solution is cloudy and remains mixed

103
Q

Inorganic Compounds

blood is thicker than water because of __

A

proteins

104
Q

Inorganic Compounds

an acid is a proton __

A

donor (releases H+ ions)

105
Q

Inorganic Compounds

a base is a proton __

A

acceptor (accepts H+ ions)

106
Q

Inorganic Compounds

a pH of less than 7 is…

A

an acidic solution (H+ > OH-)

107
Q

Inorganic Compounds

a pH greater than 7 is…

A

a basic solution (OH- > H+)

108
Q

a pH of 7 is…

A

neutral (H+ = OH-)

109
Q

our body uses __ to prevent changes in pH

A

buffer systems (mixture of chemicals that resist change)

110
Q

Inorganic Compounds

pH of blood ranges from __ to __

A

7.35 to 7.45

111
Q

Inorganic Compounds

OH- = __

A

hydroxyl

112
Q

more H+ = more __

more OH- (hydroxyls) = more __

A

acidic

basic

113
Q

Organic Compounds

organic compounds

A

contains carbon and hydrogen and usually oxygen; carbon is the primary structural atom

114
Q

Organic Compounds

organic chemistry

A

study of compounds containing carbon

115
Q

4 categories of carbon compounds

A

carbohydrates
lipids (fats)
proteins
nucleotides and nucleic acids

116
Q

Organic Compounds

carbon

A

the atomic number of 6; has 4 valence electrons (binds with other atoms that give it 4 electrons to be stable); forms long chains, branched molecules, and rings (serves as the backbone for organic molecules); carries a variety of functional groups

117
Q

Organic Compounds

functional groups

A

atoms attached to carbon backbone; determines chemical properties; examples: hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate

118
Q

Organic Compounds

since carbon can form long chains, some organic molecules are…

A

very large macromolecules, such as starch, proteins, and DNA

119
Q

Organic Compounds

polymer

A

molecules made of multiple monomers; example: ººººº

120
Q

Organic Compounds

monomer

A

small subunit; example: º

121
Q

Organic Compounds

a polymer of glucose is a __

A

starch/carbohydrate

122
Q

Organic Compounds

a polymer of amino acids is a __

A

protein molecule

123
Q

Organic Compounds

polymerization

A

joining monomers to form a polymer

124
Q

Organic Compounds

dehydration synthesis

A

monomers covalently bond together to form a polymer with the removal of a water molecule; a hydroxyl group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen from the next

125
Q

Organic Compounds

hydrolysis

A

splitting a polymer by the addition of a water molecule

126
Q

Organic Compounds

carbohydrates are __ and contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a __ ratio

A

hydrophilic; 1:2:1

127
Q

Organic Compounds

all digested carbohydrates are converted to __ and oxidized to make __

A

glucose; ATP

128
Q

Organic Compounds

monosaccharide

A

simple sugar; produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates

129
Q

Organic Compounds

major monosaccharides

A

glucose (the body’s most important source of energy [metabolic fuel]), galactose, fructose
*these are all isomers

130
Q

Organic Compounds

disaccharides

A

sugar molecule composed of 2 monosaccharides

131
Q

Organic Compounds

major disaccharides

A

sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (grain)

132
Q

Organic Compounds

polysaccharides

A

chains of glucose subunits

133
Q

Organic Compounds

starch

A

energy storage in plants; most commonly digested carbohydrate; digestible by humans for energy

134
Q

Organic Compounds

cellulose

A

structural molecule of plant cell walls; fiber in human diet

135
Q

Organic Compounds

glycogen

A

energy storage in animals; stored glucose; found in liver and muscle tissue; if energy is needed, can be broken back down into glucose; liver synthesizes after a meal and breaks down between meals

136
Q

Organic Compounds

lipids are __ and composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in __ ratio

A

hydrophobic; no

137
Q

Organic Compounds

five primary types of lipids in humans

A 
fatty acids
triglycerides
phospholipids
eicosanoids*
steroids (cholesterol)
138
Q

Organic Compounds

primary function of triglycerides

A

energy storage, insulation, and shock absorption (adipose tissue)

139
Q

Organic Compounds

phospholipids are the structural foundation of a __ __

A

cell membrane

140
Q

Organic Compounds

HDL

A

high-density lipoprotein; “good” cholesterol; makes up cell membranes and hormones; heart does like

141
Q

Organic Compounds

LDL

A

low-density lipoprotein; “bad” cholesterol; high ratio of lipid to protein; contributes to cardiovascular disease

142
Q

Organic Compounds

__ are the most abundant and important organic molecule

A

proteins

143
Q

Organic Compounds

five components of amino acid structure

A 
central carbon atom
hydrogen atom
amino group
carboxyl group
R group/variable side chain
144
Q

Organic Compounds

__ amino acids are used to make proteins; they are all identical except for the __

A

20; radical (R) group

145
Q

Organic Compounds

properties of an amino acid are determined by __

A

R group

146
Q

Organic Compounds

primary protein structure

A

sequence of amino acids

147
Q

Organic Compounds

secondary protein structure

A

H bonding causes spiral, coiling, or folded effect; can be either alpha helix (spiral) or beta-sheet shape

148
Q

Organic Compounds

tertiary protein structure

A

further coiling and folding and bending into globular and fibrous shapes

149
Q

Organic Compounds

quaternary protein structure

A

final protein shape; several tertiary structures together

150
Q

Organic Compounds

major protein functions

A 
support
movement
transport
buffering
metabolic regulation
coordination and control
defense
151
Q

Organic Compounds

enzymes

A

proteins that speed up a reaction by lowering the activation energy (energy needed to get a reaction started); act as biological catalysts

152
Q

Organic Compounds

examples of enzymes

A

pepsin, trypsin, amylase

*all digestive

153
Q

Organic Compounds

a __ acts upon an __ on the enzyme forming a __

A

substrate; active site; product

154
Q

Organic Compounds

temperature and pH can effect enzyme performance by changing its __, therefore altering ability to __

A

shape; bind

155
Q

Organic Compounds

steps of enzyme reaction

A
  1. enzyme and substrate
  2. substrate binds to active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex (highly specific)
  3. enzyme breaks bond
  4. products released
156
Q

Organic Compounds

3 components of a nucleotide

A

nitrogenous base
sugar (monosaccharide)
one or more phosphate groups

157
Q

Organic Compounds

physiologically important nucleotides

A

ATP, DNA, RNA

158
Q

Organic Compounds

ATP contains…

A

adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphate groups

159
Q

Organic Compounds

what is the significance of ATP’s three phosphate groups?

A

it takes a lot of energy to bring 3 phosphate groups together, so there is a lot of potential energy stored in the bonds of the 2nd and 3rd groups, so when the bonds are broken, energy is released (exergonic) and becomes ADP + P + energy

160
Q

Organic Compounds

ATP is consumed within __ and continually __

A

60 seconds; replenished

161
Q

Organic Compounds

2 types of nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA

162
Q

Organic Compounds

DNA

A

deoxyribonucleic acid
double-stranded and held together by hydrogen bonding
backbone is made of deoxyribose (sugar) and phosphate
nitrogenous bases
100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long
contains genetic code

163
Q

Organic Compounds

RNA

A

ribonucleic acid
single-stranded
backbone is made of ribose (sugar) and phosphate
nitrogenous bases
three types
70 to 10,000 nucleotides long
involved in protein synthesis coded for by DNA

164
Q

Organic Compounds

DNA nitrogenous bases

A

adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine

165
Q

Organic Compounds

RNA nitrogenous bases

A

adenine
uracil
guanine
cytosine

166
Q

Organic Compounds

law of complementary base pairing

A

one strand determines the base sequence of the other; A–T, C–G

167
Q

Organic Compounds

nitrogenous bases united by __

A

hydrogen bonds

Anatomy & Physiology I (4 decks)

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