Chapter 2: Chemistry Flashcards
1
Q
What determines whether something is a gas, liquid, or solid?
A
how far apart the molecules are
2
Q
Matter
A
anything that has mass and occupies space
3
Q
Weight is mass + what?
A
mass + the effects of gravity
4
Q
What is the human body made of?
A
96% : oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
4%: sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc
5
Q
Solid
A
molecules close together; definite shape and volume
6
Q
Liquid
A
molecules somewhat close together; changeable shape; definite volume
7
Q
Gas
A
molecules far apart from each other; changeable shape; changeable volume
8
Q
Energy
A
capacity for work; the ability to put matter into motion; doesn’t have mass; doesn’t take up space; converted from one state to another so it’s in a dynamic state
9
Q
Kinetic Energy
A
energy in action; moving (the water flowing when a dam is opened)
10
Q
Potential Energy
A
inactive energy; stored (the water at the top of a dam)
11
Q
First Law of Thermodynamics
A
energy is transformed from one form into another
12
Q
What is an example of chemical energy?
A
-fuel -oil burner
13
Q
What is an example of electrical energy?
A
-power lines
14
Q
What is an example of mechanical energy?
A
-dam
15
Q
What is an example of radiant/electromagnetic energy?
A
-solar (sunlight)
16
Q
Chemical Energy
A
stored in bonds of chemical substances
17
Q
Electrical Energy
A
results from movement of charged particles
18
Q
Mechanical Energy
A
directly involved in moving matter
19
Q
Radiant/Electromagnetic Energy
A
travels in waves (ex: heat, x ray, ultraviolet light, visible light)
20
Q
Inefficient Energy
A
some energy is lost as ‘heat’ which can be partly unusable energy
21
Q
Electron
A
negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atom’s nucleus
22
Q
Double Helix
A
the secondary structure assumed by two strands of DNA held together throughout their length by hydrogen bonds between bases on opposite stands
23
Q
Exchange (Displacement) Reaction
A
bonds are both made and broken; chemical reactions in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms are combined with different atoms; AB + C -> AC + B
24
Q
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
A
nucleic acid that contains ribose and the bases A, G, C, and U; carries out DNA’s instructions for protein synthesis
25
Proton Donor
a substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid
26
Polar Molecules
electrically asymmetric molecules
27
Chemical Bond
an energy relationship holding atoms together; involves the interaction of electrons
28
Guanine (G)
one of two major purines occurring in all nucleic acids
29
Ionic Bond
forms when atoms are held together by the attraction between opposite charges; chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms
30
Lipid
hydrophobic organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (ex: fats and cholesterol)
31
Polypeptide
a chain of amino acids
32
Compound
substance composed of two or more different elements; the atoms of which are chemically united
33
Amino Acid
organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of protein
34
Peptide Bond
bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule
35
Macromolecules
large complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 subunits
36
Endergonic Reaction
chemical reaction that absorbs energy (an anabolic reaction)
37
Oxidation
process of substances combining with oxygen or the removal of hydrogen
38
Monosaccharide
literally one sugar; building block of carbs; glucose
39
Proton Acceptor
a substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; commonly referred to as a base
40
Nucleic Acid
class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA
41
Dehydration Synthesis
process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together
42
Phospholipid
modified lipid; contains phosphorus
43
Suspension
heterogenous; mixture with large often visible solutes that tend to settle out
44
Carbohydrate (Carbs)
organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes starches, sugars, and cellulose; major source of quick cellular fuel; structural molecules (ex: ribose sugar in RNA)
45
Dipole
nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms
46
Active Site
region on the surface of a function (globular) protein where it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge
47
Inorganic Compound
chemical substances that do not contain carbon, inclining water, salts, and many acids and bases
48
Element
one of a limited number of unique varieties of matter than composes substances of all kinds (ex: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)
49
Electrolyte
chemical substances such as salts, acids, and bases that ionize and dissociate in water and are capable of conducting an electrical current
50
Fatty Acids
linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group at one end; a constituent of fat
51
Protein
organic compound composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; types include enzymes, structural components; 10-30% of cell mass
52
Catalyst
substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself becoming chemically changed or part of the product
53
Colloid
heterogenous; a mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily; substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein
54
Solute
the substance that is dissolved in a solution; smaller amount
55
Solution
a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances; may exist in any phase
56
Organic Compound
any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds (ex: protein, fats, and carbs); unique to living organism
57
Atomic Number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom or the number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom
58
Nucleotide
building block of nucleic acids; consists of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group
59
Neutron
uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus
60
Base
a substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor
61
Steroids
interlocking four ring structure; a class of lipids derived from (and including) cholesterol; act as hormones and as constituents of phospholipid bilateral membranes; cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones; and bile salts -> hydrophobic (can go though hydrophobic cell membrane)
62
Constituent
any element, compound or mixture with its own specific name or identity, such as a CAS Number
63
CAS Number
a CAS Registry Number, also referred to as CAS RN or informally as a CAS Number, is a unique numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service to every chemical substance described in open scientific literature
64
Atomic Weight
the average of the mass numbers of all isotopes of an element
65
Isotope
members of a family of an element that all have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; the heavier species tend to be radioactive
66
Coenzyme
nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme; typically a vitamin
67
Avogadro’s Number
the numbers of molecules in one mole of any substance (6.03 • 10’*23)
68
Chemical Equilibrium
a state of apparent repose (state of rest, sleep) created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed
69
pH Unit
the measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution
70
Cation
an ion with a positive charge; have lost one or more electron
71
Thymine (T)
single ring base (a pyrimidine) in DNA
72
Pyrimidine
pyrimidine is one of two classes of heterocyclic nitrogenous bases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA; in DNA the pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine; in RNA uracil replaces thymine
73
ATP
adenosine triphosphate; organic molecule that stored and releases chemical energy for use in body cells; … a compound consisting of an adenosine molecule bonded to three phosphate groups, present in all living tissue
74
Bicarbonate Buffer System
chemical system that helps maintain pH homeostasis of the blood; also called carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system
75
Polysaccharide
literally many sugars; a polymer of linked monosaccharides (starch, glycogen)
76
Polymer
any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large molecules, called macromolecules, that are multiples of simpler chemical units called monomers
77
Monomer
a molecule that can react together with other monomer molecules to form a larger polymer chain or three-dimensional network in a process called polymerization
78
Polymerization
the process to create polymers; smaller molecules, called monomers or building blocks, are chemically combined to create larger molecules or a macromolecule
79
Reactant
a substance that is an input to a chemical reaction
80
Hydrophilic
refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact with water and charged particles
81
Disaccharide
literally double sugar (sucrose, lactose)
82
Hydroxyl Ion (OH-)
an ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water
83
Mass Number (Atomic Mass)
sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
84
Electromagnetic Radiation
emitted photons (wave packets) of energy (X ray, light, infrared)
85
Photons
a particle representing a quantum of light or other electromagnetic radiation
86
Atomic Symbol
the one or two letter symbol used to indicate an element; usually the first letter(s) of the element’s name
87
Alpha (a)-Helix
the most common type of secondary structure of the amino acid chain in proteins; resembles a coiled spring
88
Valence Shell
outermost electron shell (energy level) of an atom that contains electrons
89
Activation Energy
the amount of energy required to push a reactant to the level necessary for action
90
Covalent Bond
done to satisfy the octet rule; chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms; sharing; not giving away; allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time
91
Electron Shells (Energy Levels)
regions of space that consecutively surround the nucleus of an atom; the atom’s electrons are most likely to be found in these regions
92
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
a nucleic acid found in all living cells; it carries the organism’s hereditary information
93
Uracil (U)
a smaller single ring base (a pyrimidine) found in RNA
94
Acid
a substance that releases hydrogen ions when in solution; a proton donor
95
Base
a molecule in an aqueous solution that can accept protons or donate electrons
96
Adenine (A)
one of the two major purines found in both RNA and DNA; also found in various free nucleotides of importance to the body such as ATP
97
Nucleotide
a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group
98
Purine
a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that consists of two rings fused together; it is water soluble
99
Nucleus
control center of a cell; contains genetic material; clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS (central nervous system); center of an atom; contains protons and neurons
100
Neuron
information messengers; use electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit information between different areas of the brain, and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system
101
Proton
( + ) a positively charged elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of all atomic nuclei; located in the atomic nucleus
102
Buffer
chemical substance or system that minimized changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions
103
Ion
any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more positive or negative electrical charges
104
Hydrophobic
refers to molecules or protons of molecules that interact only with nonpolar molecules
105
Synthesis (Combination) Reaction
anabolic; a chemical reaction in which larger more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones; endothermic (takes in heat)
106
Anion
an ion with a negative charge; have gained one or more electron
107
Hydrolysis
process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller parts
108
Neutralization Reaction
displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt
109
Enzyme
a protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction
110
Substrate
a reactant in which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed
111
Exergonic Reaction
chemical reaction that releases energy (catabolic or oxidative reaction)
112
Decomposition Reaction
catabolic; chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or it’s constituent atoms; exergonic (releases energy); exothermic (giving off heat); reverse of synthesis reaction; AB -> A + B
113
Sol-gel Transformation
reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state
114
Chemical Reaction
process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down
115
Glycerol
a modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol); a building block of fats
116
Complement
a group of bloodborne proteins which when activated enhance the inflammatory and immune responses and may lead to cell lysis
117
Lysis
the breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic mechanisms that compromise its integrity
118
Lysate
a fluid containing the contents of lysed cells
119
Complementary Base
refers to how a given nitrogenous base of DNA or RNA bonds to another nitrogenous base; the result is base pairing (ex: adenine (A) is the complementary base of thymine (T))
120
Mole
a mole of an element or compound is equal to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams
121
Polymer
a substance of high molecular weight with long chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units
122
Nonpolar Molecules
electrically symmetrical molecules
123
Atom
smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits properties of that element; composed of protons, neurons, and electrons
124
Apoenzyme
the protein portion of an enzyme
125
Radioisotope
isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior; spontaneously decays to more stable forms; damages living tissues
126
Molarity
a way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution
127
Hydrogen Ion (H+)
a hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (a proton)
128
Octet Rule (Rule of Eights)
the tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell
129
Cytosine (C)
nitrogen containing base that is part of a nucleotide structure
130
Triglycerides
fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body’s most concentrated source of energy fuel
131
Ammonia (NH,3)
common ways product of protein breakdown in the body; a colorless volatile gas that is very soluble in water and capable of acting as a weak base; a proton acceptor
132
Isomer
one of two or more substances that has the same molecular formula but with its atoms arranged differently
133
Cofactor
metal ions or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity
134
Elements
substances that can not be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods
135
All matter is composed of what?
elements
136
What elements make up 96% of the human body?
Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)
137
What elements make up 3.9% of the human body?
Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), Iodine (I), and Iron (Fe)
138
What elements make up less than 0.01% of the human body?
parts of enzymes (Chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn), and Zinc (Zn))
139
What is the top left of an atomic symbol?
mass number; number of protons and neutrons
140
Proton
carry a positive charge; weigh 1 atomic mass unit (1 amu)
141
Neutron
have no electrical charge; weigh 1 amu
142
Electron
( - ) carry a negative charge; weigh 0 amu
143
The nucleus consists of what?
neutrons and protons
144
What orbits the nucleus?
elctrons
145
Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of what?
subatomic particles
146
What is the bottom left of an atomic symbol?
atomic number (number of protons)
147
What is one reason an element can be unstable?
when the protons and neutrons in the nucleus is not balanced
148
Molecule
two or more atoms bonded together
149
Compound
two or more different kinds of atoms bonded together
150
Each circle around the nucleus is called a what?
a shell
151
Chemical Bonds
energy relationships between two electrons of reacting atoms
152
How many shells can an electron occupy?
up to seven
153
How many electrons can the first three shells hold each?
Shell 1: only 2 electrons (or just 1)
Shell 2: a maximum of 8 electrons
Shell 3: a maximum of 18 electrons
154
Chemically Inert Elements
‘noble gases’; stable and unreactive; outermost shell (energy level) full occupied or contains 8 electrons; all elements on the right hand side of the periodic table
155
Chemically Reactive Elements
outermost energy level not fully occupied by electrons (most potential energy); tend to gain, lose, or share electrons (form bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability
156
Hydrogen Bond
attractions due to slight charges on atoms; attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule; also act as intramolecular bonds holding a large molecule in a three dimensional shape
157
Ions
atoms that have gained or lost electrons and become charged; number of protons does not equal number of electrons
158
Attraction of opposite charges results in what?
an ionic bond
159
Ionic Bonds
formed by transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms; not sharing; giving them away
160
What do ionic compounds form instead of individual molecules?
crystals
161
Double Bond
sharing more than one electron
162
Triple Bond
sharing three electrons
163
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
equal sharing produces electrically balanced nonpolar molecules
164
Polar Covalent Bond
unequal sharing by atoms with different electron attracting abilities produces polar molecules
165
Net Charge
the total after taking account of both positive and negative charges; example: if something contains 321 positive charges and 319 negative charges, the net charge is 321 - 319 = +2.; example: if it contains 37 positive charges and 42 negative charges, the net charge is 37 - 42 = -5.
166
T or F | Most matter exists as a mixture?
True
167
What is the particle size of a solution?
small
168
What is the particle size of a colloidal solution?
medium
169
What is the particle size of a suspension?
large
170
Homogenous Mixture
all of one solute in a solvent; usually transparent (air, seawater)
171
Solvent
what you put the solute in; greatest amount; usually a liquid
172
Heterogenous Mixture
mixture with different things in it; large particles that do not mix in all the way (do not settle out)
173
T or F | All chemical reaction are reversible?
True theoretically
174
Chemical Equilibrium
when neither a forward or reverse reaction is dominant
175
T or F | Biological reactions are irreversible?
True for most due to energy requirements and removal of products
176
What is the product in this: A + B -> AB
AB
177
Synthesis Reactions (Anabolic) always involve what formation?
bond formation
178
Endergonic Reaction
products contain more potential energy than did reactants; synthesis reaction (anabolic)
179
Exergonic Reaction
releases energy
180
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
decomposition reactions; reactions in which fuel is broken down for energy; also called exchange reactions because electrons are exchanged or shared differently
181
Reducing Agent
electron donor
182
Electron Donors
lose electrons and are oxidized
183
Electron Acceptors
receiver electrons and become reduced; reduced means more negative
184
What influences the rate of chemical reactions?
-increase temperate -particle size decreases -increase the concentration of the reactant -catalysts (ex: enzymes) (won’t be changed themselves)
185
What is a biological catalyst?
enzymes
186
What does ‘Enzymes are very specific.’ mean?
they only work with the molecules they are designed for; being specific helps speed up the bonding
187
What atom doesn’t have 8 electrons in the outer shell?
Hydrogen
188
How many electrons in the atom’s shell to be chemically stable?
8 electrons
189
Macromolecules
a very large molecule important to biophysical processes (carb, protein, lipid, nucleic acid)
190
Monomer
building block
191
Polymer
chains of similar units; chains of monomers
192
Water
most important inorganic compound; 60-80% of the volume of living cells
193
Properties of Water
-high heat capacity; absorbs and releases heat with little temperature change; prevents sudden changes in temperature
-high heat of vaporization; evaporation requires large amounts of heat; useful cooling mechanism
-polar solvent properties; dissolves and disassociate ionic substances; forms hydration layers around large charged molecules (ex: protein) (colloid formation); body’s major transport medium
-reactivity; a necessary part of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions; breaks down polymers into monomers
-cushioning; protects certain organs from trauma (ex: cerebrospinal fluid)
194
T or F | Water is polar?
True
195
Salts
ionic compounds that dissociate in water; ions (electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in solutions; ions play specialized roles in body functions (ex: sodium Na*+, potassium K*+, calcium Ca*2+, iron Fe*2+)
196
pH
amount of hydrogen ions; acids are protons (hydrogen ions) donors (release H*+ in solution)
197
What do the brackets mean?
concentration
198
Acidic solutions have a higher concentration of what?
hydrogen
199
Anything below what on the pH scale is acidic?
below 7
200
A decrease in pH is an increase in what?
hydrogen
201
T or F | If there is a high level of hydrogen, we have a more acidic solution and a lower pH?
True
202
T or F | Bases are proton acceptor?
True
203
Neutral Solution
hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions are about the same
204
What is the pH range 7.01-14?
basic (not acidic)
205
What is human blood pH range?
7.35-7.45
206
T or F | A slight change in pH can be fatal to humans?
True
207
What is pH regulated by?
kidneys, lungs, and buffers
208
Buffers
mixture of compounds that resist pH changes
209
What are two important pH bases in the body?
bicarbonate ion (HCO_3-) and ammonia (NH_3)
210
What makes up polymers?
monomers
211
Dehydration Synthesis
monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation
212
Hydrolysis
monomers are releases by the addition of water molecule adding OH to one monomer and H to the other
213
What is the monomer of protein?
amino acids
214
What is the monomer of carbs?
monosaccharides
215
What is the monomer of lipids?
glycerol and fatty acid (many do not believe lipids have true monomers)
216
What is the monomer of nucleic acid?
nucleotides
217
Carbohydrates
sugars and starches; contains CHO (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen); CH_2O
218
Monosaccharides
simple sugars contains three to seven C atoms
219
Disaccharides
double sugar; too large to pass through cell membranes
220
Polysaccharides
starch and glycogen; not very soluble; long branching chains (polymers) of linked monosaccharides
221
Lipids
CHO (less oxygen than carbs); sometimes P as well; insoluble in water (hydrophobic); long term energy storage; steroids
222
Triglycerides
neutral fats; solid fats and liquid oils; composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule; energy storage, insulation, and protection
223
Fatty Acids
-saturated fatty acids: single bonds between C atoms; maximum number of H; solid animal fats (butter)
-unsaturated fatty acids: one or more double bonds between C atoms; reduced number of H atoms; plant oil (olive oil)
-trans fat: chemically altered; elevates bad cholesterol; extends shelf life of foods
224
Phospholipids
modified triglycerides: glycerol with two fatty acids and phosphorus (P-) containing group; hydrophilic head and hydrophilic tail regions (looks like a jellyfish) (the tails touch and the head is on top; this head is the cell membrane); main component of plasma membrane
225
Eicosanoids
many different ones; derived from a fatty acid (arachidonic acid) in cell membranes (ex: prostaglandins, thromboxanes)
226
Water Soluble Vitamins
-vitamin B group -vitamin C
227
Fat Soluble (Hydrophobic) Vitamins
-vitamin A -vitamin D -vitamin E -vitamin K; need the help of lipoproteins to get transported
228
Lipoproteins
a lipid; transports fats in the blood
229
Proteins
monomer is amino acids; 20 types of amino acids; joined by peptide bonds; CHON sometimes S and P;
230
Dipeptide
two peptides
231
How to break a peptide into its amino components?
add water
232
Glycine
the smallest amino acid
233
Aspartic Acid
an acidic amino acid; has an acid group (—COOH) in the R group
234
Lysine
a basic amino acid; has an amine group (—NH_2) in the R group
235
Cysteine
a basic amino acid; has a sulfhydryl (—SH) group in the R group which suggest this amino acid is likely to participate in intramolecular bonding
236
What is the order of protein structures?
Primary -> Secondary -> Tertiary -> Quarternary
237
Protein Primary Structure
the sequence of amino acids forms the polypeptide chain
238
Protein Secondary Structure
the primary chain forms spirals and sheets
239
Protein Tertiary Structure
superimposed on secondary structure; sheets are folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds
240
Protein Quaternary Structure
two or more polypeptide chains each with its own tertiary structure combine to form a functional protein
241
Helix
a spiral structure in a macromolecule that contains a repeating pattern
242
Fibrous (Structural Protein)
strandlike, water insoluble, and stable (ex: keratin, collagen)
243
Globular (Functional) Protein
compact, spherical, water soluble, and sensitive to environmental changes; specific functional regions called active sites; (ex: antibodies, hormones, enzymes)
244
Protein Denaturation
shape change and disruption of active sites due to environment changes (decreased pH, increased temperature); usually reversible but not always
245
Enzymes
made of proteins; lower the activation energy, increase the speed of a reaction (millions of reactions per minute); usually end is -ase
246
Nucleic Acid
monomer is nucleotide; composed of N containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group; largest molecule in the body; recipe for who we are
247
DNA
double stranded helical molecule in the cell nucleus; four bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T); provides instructions for protein synthesis; replicated before cell division ensuring genetic continuity
248
RNA
single stranded molecule mostly active outside the nucleus; four bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U); three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA)
249
ATP
high energy phosphate bonds used in energy exchange; phosphates are transferred to energize other molecules; three phosphate groups (adenine, ribose, phosphate groups)
250
Polynucleotides
strands of DNA and RNA
251
Genes
portions of DNA
