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Chapter 2- Chemical level of organization Flashcards

1
Q

Matter

A

Anything that occupies space and has mass

-The substance of the universe -from a grain of sand to a star

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2
Q

Element

A

A pure substance that is distinguished from all other matter by the fact that it cannot be created or broken down by ordinary chemical means

-All matter in the natural world is composed of one or more of the 92 fundamental substances called elements

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3
Q

Compound

A

A substance composed of two or more elements joined by chemical bonds

-Elements combine to form compounds

ex: the compound glucose is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

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4
Q

Atom

A

The smallest quantity of an element that retains the unique properties of that element

ex: An atom of hydrogen is a unit of hydrogen

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5
Q

What are atoms made up of?

A

Three subatomic particles:
proton
neutron
electron

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6
Q

What gives mass to the atom?

A

The number of positively- charged protons and non-charged (neutral) neutrons

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7
Q

What equals the number of protons?

A

The number of negatively-charged electrons that “spin” around the nucleus at close to the speed of light

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8
Q

An electron has about _____ the mass of a proton or neutron

A

1/2000th

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9
Q

(An element’s) Atomic number

A

The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom, identifies the element

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10
Q

(An element’s) Mass number

A

The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

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11
Q

Periodic table of elements

A

A chart identifying the 92 elements found in nature, as well as several larger, unstable elements discovered experimentally

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12
Q

Istotope

A

One of the different forms of an element, distinguished from one another by different number of neutrons

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13
Q

Electron shell

A

A layer of electrons that encircle the nucleus at a distinct energy level

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14
Q

Valence shell

A

An atom’s outermost electron shell

-If the v shell is full, the atom is stable; its electrons are unlikely to be pulled away from the nucleus by the electrical charge of other atoms

-If the v shell is not full the atom is reactive; it will tend to react with other atoms in ways that make the v shell full

ex: hydrogen with its one electron only half-filling its v shell. This single electron is likely to be drawn into relatiosnhips w the atoms of other elemtns, so that hydrogen’s single v shell can be stabilized

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15
Q

Chemical bond

A

Atoms link by forming a chemical bond

A bond is a weak or strong electrical attraction that holds atoms in the same vicinity

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16
Q

Ion

A

An atom that has an electrical charge - whether positive or negative

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17
Q

Cation

A

A positively charged ion

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18
Q

Anion

A

A negatively charged ion

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19
Q

Ionic bond

A

An ongoing, close association betweens ions of opposite charge

-Formed by the attraction between a cation’s positive chargr and an anion’s negative charge

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20
Q

Covalent bond

A

Molecules formed by a CB share electrons in a mutually stabilizing relationship

ex: The atoms do not lose or gain electrons permanently, instead the electrons move back and forth between the elements

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21
Q

Why are covalent bonds stronger than ionic bonds?

A

Because of the close sharing of pairs of electrons (one electron from each of two atoms)

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22
Q

Nonpolar covalent bond

A

Covalently bonded molecules that are electrically balanced. No region of the molecule is either more positive or more negative than any other

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23
Q

Nonpolar molecules

A

Molecules that do not have any electrical charges or partial charges

-Made of atoms that have a similar value of electronegativity (the tendency of an atom to attract electrons)

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24
Q

Polar covalent bond

A

Exists when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons in a covalent bond

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25
Polar molecule
A molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges -Occurs when atoms share electrons unequally, in polar covalent bonds
26
Hydrogen bond
Formed when a weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom ( ex: the o2 in the water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule -In other words, hydrogen bonds always include hydrogen that is already part of a polar molecule
27
Kinetic energy
Is the form of energy powering any type of matter in motion ex: You are building a brick wall. The energy it takes to lift and place one brick atop the other is KE- the energy matter possesses because of its motion.....once the wall is in place it starts potential energy....
28
Potential energy
The energy of position, or the energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components -If the brick wall collapses, the stored potential energy is released as kinetic energy as the bricks fall
29
Chemical energy
The form of potential energy in which energy is stored in chemical bonds
30
Reactant
All chemical reactions begin with a reactant, the general term for the one or more substances that enter into the reaction ex: sodium and chloride ions are the reactants in the production of table salt
31
Product
The one or more substances produced by a chemical reaction
32
Synthesis reaction
A chemical reaction that results in the synthesis (joining) of components that were formerly seperate -Two components bond to make a larger molecule Energy is required and is stored in the bond ex: A+B-----> AB ex: NOTE + BOOK -----> NOTEBOOK
33
Decomposition reaction
A chemical reaction that breaks down or "de-composes" something larger into its consituent parts. Bonds between components of a larger molecule are broken, resulting in smaller products Ex: AB----> A + B ex: BOOKWORM -----> BOOK + WORM In this example, ammonia is catabolized into its smaller components , and the potential energy that had been stored in its bond is released
34
Exchange reaction
A chemical reaction in which both synthesis and decomposition occur, chemical bonds are both formed and broken, and chemical energy is absorbed, stored, and released. - Bonds are both formed and broken such that the components of the reactants are rearranged NOTEBOOK+ WORM-----> NOTE + BOOKWORM The simplest form of an exchange reaction might be: A + BC----> AB + C Notice that to produce these products, B and C had to break apart in a decomposition reaction, whereas A and B had to bond in a synthesis reaction A more complex exchange reaction might be AB+CD---> AC + BD or AB+CD ---> AD+BC
35
Reactant concentration
Chemists can speed up chemical reactions not only by increasing the concentration of particles- the number of particles in the space- but also by decreasing the volume of the space, which would correspondingly increase the pressure. ex: If there were 100 dancersin that club, and the manager abruptly moved the party to a room half the size, the concentration of the dancers would double in new space, and the likelihood of conditions would increase accordingly
36
Catalyst
A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change -Think of a catalyst as a chemical change agent -They help increase the the rate and force at which atoms, ions, and molecules collide, thereby increasing the probability that their valence shell electrons will interact
37
Enzyme
A catalyst composed of protein or ribonucleic acid (RNA) -The most important catalysts in the human body -Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the level of energy that needs to be invested in a chemical reaction
38
Activation energy
A chemical reaction's activation energy is the "threshold" level of energy needed to break the bonds in the reactants. -Once those bonds are broken, new arrangements can form. Without an enzyme to act as a catalyst, a much larger investment of energy is needed to ignite a cheical reaction
39
Inorganic compound
A substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen.
40
Organic compound
A substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen -Synthesized via covalent bonds within living organisms, including the human body
41
Solution
For cells in the body to survuve, they must be kept moist in a water-based liquid called a solution Consists of a solvent that dissolves a substance called a solute
42
Solvent
Able to dissolve other substances The liquid in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution
43
Solute
The minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent
44
Colloid
A mixture that is somewhat like a heavy solution. The solute particles consist of tiny clumps of molecules large enough to make the liquid texture opaque (because the particles are large enough to scatter light). Ex: Familiar examples of colloids are milk and cream. Ex: In the thyroid glands, the thyroid harmone is stored as a thick protein mixture also called a colloid
45
Suspension
A liquid mixture in which a heavier substance is suspended temporarily in liquid, but over time, settles out.
46
Sedimentation
The seperation of particles from a suspension
47
Salts
Formed when ions form ionic bonds
48
Acid
A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
49
Base
A substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH-) in solution, or one that accepts H+ already present in solution
50
pH
The negative, base-10 logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of the solution -The relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution can be indicated by its pH
51
Buffer
A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base -Can neutralize small amounts of acids or bases in bodily fluids
52
Functional group (of an organic compound)
A group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds and tending to function in chemical reactions as a single unit Ex: Tightly knit "cliques" whose members are unlikely to be parted
53
What are the 5 functional groups in human physiology?
Hydroxyl Carboxyl Amino Methyl Phosphate
54
Hydroxyl Group
Polar. Components of all 4 types of organic compounds discussed in this chapter. They are involved in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions -O-H
55
Carboxyl Group
Found within fatty acids, amino acids, and many other acids Check book for structural formula
56
Amino Group
Found within amino acids, the building blocks of proteins -N-H2 (lowercase 2)
57
Methyl Group
Found within amino acids -C-H3 (lowercase 3)
58
Phosphate Group
Found within phopholipids and nucleotides Check book for structural formula
59
Macromolecule
Any large molecule`
60
Monomer
Macromolecules made up of several copies of single units
61
Polymers
Monomers link by covalent bonds to form polymers
62
Monomers form polymers by?
Engaging in dehydrated synthesis
63
Polymers are split into monomers by
Hydrolysis
64
Dehydration synthesis
Monomers form polymers. This reaction results in the release of a molecule of water Each monomer contributes: One gives up a hydrogen atom and the other gives up a hydroxyl group
65
Hydrolysis
Polymers are split into monomers The bonds between the monomers are broken, via the donation of a molecule of water, which contributes a hydrogen atom to one monomer and one hydroxyl group to the other
66
Carbohydrate
A molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; in most carbohydrates, hydrogen and oxygen are found in the same two-to-one relative proportions they have in water
67
Three kinds of carbohydrates "saccharides" ("sugars")
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
68
Monosaccharides
Monomers of carbohydrates
69
Disaccharides
A pair of monosaccharides Made up of two monomers Formed via dehydration synthesis, and the bond linking them is referred to as a glycosidic bond.
70
Polysaccharides
The polymers and can consist of hundreds to thousands of monomers
71
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups Releases free energy when its phophate bonds are broken, and thus supplies ready energy to the cell
72
Lipid
One of the highly diverse groups of compounds made up mostly of hydrocarbons
73
Triglyceride
One of the most common dietary lipid groups, and the type found most abundantly in body tissues. This compound, referred to as fat, is formed from the synthesis of two types of molecules
74
Glycerol
A glycerol backbone at the core of triglycerides, consists of three carbon atoms
75
Fatty Acid
Three fatty acids, long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group and a methyl group at opposite ends, extend from each of the carbons of the glycerol
76
Phospholipid
A bond between the glycerol component of a lipid and a phosphorus molecule.
77
Prostaglandin
One of a group of signaling molecules, but prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated fatty acids.
78
Protein
An organic molecule composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds Critical components of all tissues and organs
79
Amino Acid
A molecule composed of an amino group and a carboxyl group, together with a variable side chain 20 different amino acids contribute to nearly all of the thousands of different proteins important in human structure and function
80
Peptide bond
A covalent bond between two amino acids that forms by dehydration synthesis A peptide is a very short chain of amino acids
81
Polypeptide
Strands containing fewer than about 100 amino acids are generally referred to as polypeptides rather than proteins
82
Denaturation
A change in the structure of a molecule through physical or chemical means When they are exposed to heat, acids, bases, and certain other substances, proteins will denature Example of protein denaturation: The curdling of milk when acidic lemon juice is added
83
Substrate
A reactant in an enzymatic reaction. This occurs on regions of the enzyme known as active sites.
84
Enzyme-substrate complex
Binding of a substrate produces an enxyme-substrate complex
85
Nucleotide
The fourth type of organic compound important to human structure and function A nucleotide is one of a class of organic compounds composed of three subunits Can be assembled into nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) or the energy compound adenosine triphosphate
86
A nucleotide is one of a class of organic compounds composed of what three units?
- One or more phosphate groups - A pentose sugar: either deoxyribose or ribose -A nitrogen-containing base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil
87
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Is nucleotide that stores genetic information Contains deoxyribose (so-called because it has one less atom of oxygen than ribose) plus one phosphate group and one nitrogen-containing base
88
The nucleic acids differ in their type of ____ _____
Pentose sugar
89
The building blocks of all nucleotides are________
One or more phosphate groups A pentose sugaar A nitrogen containing base
90
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A ribose- containing nucleotide that helps manifest the genetic codes as protein RNA contians ribose, one phosphate group, and one nitrogen containing base, but the "choices" of base for RNA are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil
91
Purine
A nitrogen-containing molecule with a double ring structure, which accommodates several nitrogen atoms The nitrogen-containing bases adenine and guanine are classified as purines
92
Pyramidine
A nitrogen-containing base with a single ring structure The bases cytosine, thymine (found in DNA only) and uracil (found in RNA only) are pyramidines
93
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to an organic compound, in this case, resulting in ATP
94
Mass
The quantity of matter in an object On Earth, mass = weight
95
Solid
Maintain volume and shape at ordinary temp and pressure
96
Liquid
Maintain volume, but not fixed shape
97
Gas
Does NOT maintain volume or shape
98
What are chemicals composed of?
Atoms
99
Atom
Smallest stable unit of matter Composed of subatomic particles
100
Water
Only substance that exists in all three states of matter at temperatures compatible with life -Solid (ice) - Liquid (water)  Exists over a broad range of temperatures due to interactions among the polar water molecules -Gas (water vapor)
101
Nucleus
The nucleus of an atom lies at its center. Contains one or more protons and it may contain neutrons as well. The mass of the atom is primarily determined by the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
102
Electron Cloud
The electrons in the atom whirl around the nucleus, creating an electron cloud
103
Molecule
When atoms interact, they produce larger, more complex structures called molecules  All matter composed of varying arrangements of atoms  Variation in matter characteristics results from types of atoms and ways they interact
104
4 categories of organic compounds important to the human body
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids
105
Metabolic pathway
Series of complex reactions occurring in the body Each reaction interlocking with next step Each reaction controlled by specific enzyme May absorb or release energy on completion (exergonic or endergonic)
106

New Bio 210 (4 decks)

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