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New Bio 210 > Chapter 1- An introduction to the human body > Flashcards

Chapter 1- An introduction to the human body Flashcards

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1
Q

Anatomy

A

The study of form/structure

  • Means “a cutting open”

-The study of the internal and external structures of the body & the physical relationships among body parts

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2
Q

Anatomy can be divided into

A

Gross Anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy

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3
Q

Gross (macroscopic) Anatomy

A

Involves the examination of relatively large structures and features usually visible with the unaided eye

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4
Q

What is gross anatomy broken down into

A

Surface anatomy
Regional Anatomy
Systemic Anatomy

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5
Q

Surface Anatomy

A

The study of surface features of the body

-Surface anatomy deals with anatomical features that can be studied by sight, without dissection.

-These are the form and proportions of the human body and the surface landmarks which correspond to deeper structures hidden from view, both in static pose and in motion.

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6
Q

Regional Anatomy

A

The study of structures that contribute to specific body regions

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7
Q

Example of regional anatomy

A

The thoracic region encompassing the chest
The mammary region encompassing each breast
The sternal region encompassing the sternum
The abdominal region encompassing the stomach area
The umbilical region is located around the navel
The coxal region (hip region) encompassing the lateral (side) of hips
The pubic region encompassing the area above the genitals1.

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8
Q

Systemic Anatomy

A

Study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems

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9
Q

Example of systemic anatomy

A

A systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body

Ex:
-The skin and its appendages belong to the integumentary system
-All structures involved in digestion to the digestive system
-All bones of the body to the skeletal system.

In systemic anatomy, the systems are studied one by one (as opposed to regional anatomy).

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10
Q

Microcscopic Anatomy

A

Delas with structures that cannot be seen without magnification, & thus the equipment used establishes the boundaries of what can be seen

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11
Q

Microscopic Anatomy is broken down into

A

Cytology
Histology

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12
Q

Cytology

A

The study of cells

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13
Q

Histology

A

The study of tissues

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14
Q

Dissecting Microscope

A

Tissue Structure

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15
Q

Light Microscope

A

Basic details of cell structure

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16
Q

Electron Microscope

A

Individual molecules that are only a few nanometers apart

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17
Q

Physiology

A

The study of functions

-How living organisms perform their vital functions

(Functions are complex and much more difficult to examine than most anatomical structures)

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18
Q

Basic Principles of Cell Theory

A

1) Cells are structural building blocks of all plants and animals

2) Cells are produced by the divisions of pre- existing cells

3) Cells are the smallest structural units that perform all vital functions

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19
Q

Responsiveness

A

Indicates that the organism recognizes changes in its internal or external environment

-Required for adaptability

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20
Q

Adaptability

A

Changes the organism’s behavior, capabilities or structure

-Required for survival in a constantly changing world

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21
Q

Growth and Development

A

Inherited patterns for growth (an increase in size) and development (changes in structure and function) produce organisms characteristic of their species
-Growth and development to maturity is controlled by inherited instructions in the form of DNA

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22
Q

Development

A

All of the changes the body goes through in life

-The processes of growth and repair, both of which involve cell differentiation

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23
Q

Differentiation

A

Development includes the process of differentiation, in which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform certain tasks in the body

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24
Q

Growth

A

The increase in body size

-Humans grow by increasing the number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around cells (mineral deposits in bones, and (within very narrow limits) increasing the size of existing cells

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25
Q

Reproduction

A

The formation of a new organism from parenting organisms

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26
Q

Levels of organization

A

1) Chemical
2) Cellular
3) Tissue
4) Organ
5) Organ System
6) Organism

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27
Q

Chemical Level

A

Atoms bond to form molecules with three dimensional structures

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28
Q

Cellular Level

A

A variety of molecules combine to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell

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29
Q

Tissue Level

A

A community of similar cells form a body tissue

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30
Q

Organ Level

A

Two or more different tissues combine to form an organ

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31
Q

Organ system level

A

Two or more organs work closely together to perform the functions of a body system

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32
Q

Organism level

A

Many organ systems work harmoniously together to perform the functions of an independent organism

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33
Q

4 requirements for human life

A

-oxygen

-nutrients

-narrow range of temperature

-Narrow range of atmospheric pressure

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34
Q

Molecules

A

2 or more atoms combine to form a molecule

-The chemical building blocks of all body structures

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35
Q

Climax

A

Climactic condition

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36
Q

Cell

A

The smallest independentely functioning unit of a living organism

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37
Q

Organelles

A

Flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water based cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units

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38
Q

Tissue

A

A group of many similar cells that work together to perform a specific function

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39
Q

Organ

A

An anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of 2 or more tissue types

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40
Q

Organ system

A

A group or organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body

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41
Q

Lymphatic system

A

-Returns fluid to blood
-Defends against pathogens

Thymus
Lymph Nodes
Spleen
Lymphatic vessels

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42
Q

Respiratory system

A

-Removes carbon dioxide from the body
-Delivers oxygen to blood

Nasal Passage
Trachea
Lungs

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43
Q

Muscular system

A

-Enables movement (with skeletal system)
-Helps maintain body temperature

Skeletal muscles
Tendons

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44
Q

Nervous System

A

-Detects and processes sensory information
-Activates bodily responses

Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nerves

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45
Q

Integumentary system

A

-Encloses internal body structures
-Site of many sensory receptors

Hair
Skin
Nails

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46
Q

Skeletal system

A

-Supports the body
-Enables movement (with muscular system)

Cartilage
Bones
Joints

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47
Q

Endocrine system

A

-Secretes hormones
-Regulates bodily processes

Pituitary gland
Thyroid Gland
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Testes
Ovaries

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48
Q

Cardiovascular System

A

-Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues
-Equalizes temperature in the body

Heart
Blood Vessels

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49
Q

Digestive system

A

-Processes food for use by the body
-Removes wastes from undigested food

Stomach
Liver
Gall bladder
Large Intestine
Small intestine

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50
Q

Urinary System

A

-Controls water balance in the body
-Removes wastes from blood and excretes them

Kidneys
Urinary bladder

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51
Q

Male Reproductive System

A

-Produces sex hormones and gametes
-Delivers gametes to females

Epididymis
Testes

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52
Q

Female reproductive system

A

-Produces sex hormones and gametes
-Supports embryo/fetus until birth
-Produces milk for infant

Mammary glands
Ovaries
Uterus

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53
Q

Metabolism

A

The sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place in the body

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54
Q

Anabolism

A

The process where smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances

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55
Q

Example of anabolism

A

Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex chemicals it needs by combining small molecules derived from the foods you eat

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56
Q

Catabolism

A

The process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules.
-Releases energy

57
Q

Example of catabolism

A

The complex molecules found in foods are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances needed for life

58
Q

Anabolic reactions (short definition)

A

Building reactions and consume energy

59
Q

Catabolic reactions (short definition)

A

Break down materials and release energy

60
Q

4 requirements for human life

A

-Oxygen

-Nutrients

-Narrow range of temperatures

-Atmospheric pressure

61
Q

Homeostasis

A

The presence of a stable internal environment

-Maintaining homeostasis is vital to an organism’s survival

-Failure to maintain homeostasis soon leads to illness and death

62
Q

Homeostatic regulation

A

The adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis in environments that are often inconsistent, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous

63
Q

Maintaining homeostasis requires:

A

A receptor
A control center
An effector

64
Q

Set point
(homeostasis)

A

The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates

-Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions. From body temp to BP to levels of certain nutrients, each physiological condition has a particular set point.

65
Q

Normal range
(homeostasis)

A

The restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable.

66
Q

Example of normal range in homeostasis

A

The set point for normal human body temperature is approximately 37 degrees C or 98.6 degrees F. Physiological parameters such as body temp and BP tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees above and below that point

67
Q

Ex of negative feedback in homeostasis

A

The regulation of blood glucose levels. If blood glucose levels continue to rise it may result in diabetes.

Control centers in the brain and other parts of the body monitor and react to deviations from homeostasis using negative feedback

68
Q

Negative feedback (homeostasis)

A

A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point

-Neg feedback maintains body parameters within their normal range

69
Q

Sensor (aka receptor)

A

A component of a feedback system that monitors physiological value.
-The value is reported to the control center

70
Q

Control Center

A

The component in a feedback system that compares the value to the normal range
-If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center activates an effector

71
Q

Effector

A

The component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range

72
Q

Negative feedback system

A

A stimulus (a deviation from a set point) is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis

-Temperature is regulated by negative feedback

73
Q

5 basic parts of negative feedback system

A

1) Stimulus
2) Sensor
3) Control
4) Effector
5) Response

74
Q

Positive feedback

A

-Results in a change in the bodys status, rather than a return to homeostasis. (intensifies a change in the bodys physiological condition rather than reversing it).

-A deviation from the normal range results in more change and the system moves farther away from the normal range.

-Positive freedback in the body is only when there is a definite end point.

75
Q

Examples of positive feedback loop

A

-Childbirth (the extreme muscular work of labor and delivery)
- The body’s response to blood loss

These are normal but activated only when needed

76
Q

Anatomical position

A

The body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward

77
Q

2 essential functions of body cavities:

A

1)Protects organs from shocks and impacts

2) Permit changes in size and shape of organs

78
Q

Serous membrane

A

The serous membrane, or serosal membrane, is a thin membrane that lines the internal body cavities and organs such as the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity
The serous membrane allows for frictionless movement in a number of vital organs

-visceral, parietal

-pericardium, pleural membrane, peritoneal membrane

79
Q

X-ray

A

A form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength, capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases

80
Q

Computed Tomography (CT)

A

A noninvasive imaging technique that uses computers to analyze several cross-sectional X-rays

81
Q

X-ray machine

A

Allows the internal structures of a body, such as bones, to be seen in x-rays (ex: x-ray of a hand)

82
Q

Magnetic resonance imagine (MRI)

A

Generates a magnetic field around a patient

  • A noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon in which matter exposed to magnetic fields and radio waves was found to emit radio signals.
83
Q

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans

A

Use radiopharmaceuticals to create images of active blood flow and physiologic activity of the organ or organs being targeted
-Can illustrate physiologic activity (including nutrient metabolism and blood flow) of the organs being targeted

84
Q

Ultrasound technology

A

An imaging technique that uses the transmission of high-frequency sound waves into the body to generate an echo signal that is converted by a computer into a real- time image of anatomy and physiology.

It is used to monitor pregnancies because it is the least invasive of imaging techniques and uses no electromagnetic radiation.

85
Q

Anterior/ or ventral

A

The front or direction towards the front of the body

ex: the toes are anterior to the foot

86
Q

Posterior/ or dorsal

A

The back or direction toward the back of the body

ex: the popliteus is posterior to the patella

87
Q

Superior/ or cranial

A

A position above or higher than another part of the body proper

ex: the orbits are superior the the oris

88
Q

Inferior/ or caudal

A

A position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx or lowest part of the spinal column)

ex: the pelvis is inferior to the abdomen

89
Q

Lateral

A

The side or direction toward the side of the body

ex: The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits

90
Q

Medial

A

The middle or direction toward the middle of the body

ex: the hallux is the medial toe

91
Q

Proximal

A

A position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

ex: The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium

92
Q

Distal

A

A position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

ex: The hand is distal to the shoulder

93
Q

Superficial

A

A position closer to the surface of the body.

ex: The skin is superficial to the bones

94
Q

Deep

A

A position farther from the surface of the body

ex: The brain is deep to the skull

95
Q

Section

A

A two-dimensional surface of a three- dimensional structure that has been cut

96
Q

Plane

A

An imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body.
-There are three planes (sagittal, frontal, and transverse)

97
Q

Sagittal plane

A

Divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides

-AKA parasagittal plane or a longitudinal section

98
Q

Frontal plane

A

Divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion.

-AKA coronal plane

99
Q

Transverse plane

A

Divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions

-Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections

100
Q

Reproduction

A

The formation of a new organism from parenting organisms.

  • In humans, reproduction is carried out by the male and female reproductive systems
101
Q

Nutrient

A

A substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival.

102
Q

Pressure

A

a force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance

103
Q

Atmospheric pressure

A

Pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the earth’s atmosphere).

-Constantly pressing down on your body
- The pressure keeps gases within your body (such as gaseous nitrogen in body fluids) dissolved.

104
Q

Physiology

A

The study of function and how living organisms perform their vital functions

Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life.

105
Q

Neurophysiology

A

The study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and how these work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as vision, movement, and thinking.

106
Q

The structures of the body in terms of fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity

A

Subatomis particles, atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms and biosphere

107
Q

Cell physiology

A

All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells.

108
Q

Development

A

All of the changes the body goes through in life

-Also includes the process of growth and repair, both of which involve cell differentiation

109
Q

Differentiation

A

Unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform certain tasks in the body.

110
Q

Systemic phisiology

A

A branch of physiology that deals with the study of specific organ systems, such as how they function.

-This would include the details of how the digestive system works to accomplish the roles of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and excretion

111
Q

Subatomic particles

A

A particle smaller than an atom or a cluster of such particles

112
Q

Atom

A

A particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element

113
Q

Organism

A

The highest level of organization.

A living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life.

114
Q

Differentiation

A

Process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function

Examples:
-A single-celled zygote developing into a multicellular embryo with various cell types.

-Lung cells and brain cells performing different functions in the body.

-Skeletal tissue containing different types of bone cells.

-Epithelial tissue lining the small intestine and absorbing nutrients.

115
Q

Functions

A

Complex and much more difficult to examine than most anatomical structures

116
Q

Anatomy (Form/ structure)

A

Means “a cutting open,” is the study of the internal and external
structures of the body and the physical relationships among body
parts.
Can be divided into Gross and Microscopic Anatomy

117
Q

Characteristics of living organisms

A

Responsiveness
Adaptability
Growth and development
Reproduction
Movement and locomotion
Respiration
Circulation
Digestion
Excretion

118
Q

Responsiveness

A

Indicates that the organism
recognizes changes in its
internal or external environment

-Required for adaptability

119
Q

Adaptability

A

Changes the organism’s
behavior, capabilities, or
structure

-Required for survival in a
constantly changing world

120
Q

Development and Growth

A

Inherited patterns for growth (an increase in size) and
development (changes in
structure and function) produce organisms characteristic of their
species.

-Growth and development
to maturity is controlled
by inherited instructions in the form of DNA

121
Q

Reproduction

A

Produces the next generation

-Sexual reproduction between two parents produces offspring with varied characteristics

122
Q

Movement and Locomotion

A

Distributes materials throughout large organisms

123
Q

Respiration

A

Usually refers to oxygen
absorption and utilization, and carbon dioxide generation and release

-Oxygen is required for chemical processes that
release energy in a usable form/ carbon dioxide is released as a waste product

124
Q

Circulation

A

Movement of fluid within the
organism; may involve a pump and a network of special vessels

-The circulation provides an
internal distribution network

125
Q

Digestion

A

The chemical breakdown of
complex materials for
absorption and use by the
organism

-The chemicals released can be used to generate energy or to support growth

126
Q

Excretion

A

The elimination of chemical
waste products generated by the organism

-The waste products are often toxic, so their removal is essential

127
Q

Ventral body cavity

A

Includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions

128
Q

Dorsal body cavity

A

Includes the cranial and spinal cavities

129
Q

Extracellular vs intracellular

A

The intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment is the system that includes all fluid enclosed in cells by their plasma membranes.

Extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds all cells in the body)

130
Q

Mechanisms (cause-effect changes) examples

A

1) The hypothalamus determines the set point for body temp (around 37 degrees C or 98.6 degrees F)

2) Specialized cells in the pancreas determine the set point for blood glucose (around 70-100 mg/dL)

131
Q

Threshold

A

The value of the membrane potential which, if reached, leads to the all-or-nothing initiation of an action potential

132
Q

Cranial cavity

A

In the posterior cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain

133
Q

Spinal cavity

A

In the posterior cavity, the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord

134
Q

Thoracic cavity

A

The more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage.

-Contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum.

-The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity.

135
Q

Abdominopelvic cavity

A

The largest cavity in the body.

-Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.

136
Q

A characteristic of homeostatic control mechanisms

A

Oscillation (movement back and forth at regular speed) around the set point

ex: picture from (AC turns on, AC turns off)

137
Q

Example of responsiveness to internal stimuli

A

Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased body temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in the skin in order to decrease body temperature, as shown by the runners in

138
Q

Example of responsiveness to external stimuli

A

-Moving toward sources of food and water and away from perceived dangers.
-Organisms may respond to environmental shifts through anatomical changes, such as growing heavy winter coats in areas where temperatures vary significantly season to season

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