Chapter 2 An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology

Question 1

Multidimensional integrative approach

Answer 1

1. Biological dimensions include causal factors from the fields of genetics and neuroscience
2. Psychological dimensions include causal factors from behavioral and cognitive processes, including learned helplessness, social learning, prepared learning, and even unconscious processes
3. Emotional influences
4. Social and interpersonal influences
5. Developmental influences

Question 2

linear or one-dimensional model

Answer 2

trace the origins of behavior to a single cause

Question 3

Multidimensional model

Answer 3

1. A system, or feedback loop, may have independent inputs at many different points, but as each input becomes part of the whole it can no longer be considered independent
2. Causality is systemic
3. Any particular influence contributing to psychopathology cannot be considered out of context
4. Context: biology and behavior of the individual, as well as the cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural environment because any one component of the system inevitably affects the other components.

Question 4

Genes

Answer 4

1. long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at various locations on chromosomes, within the cell nucleus.
   - Gregor Mendel in the 19th century
   - Physical characteristics are determined- or at least strongly influenced- by our genetic endowment.
   - Other factors in the environment influence our physical appearance
   - Are affected by nutritional, social, and cultural factors
   - Our genes seldom determine our physical development in any absolute way.
   - Provide some boundaries to our development
   - Exactly where we go within these boundaries depends on environmental influences

Question 5

Hungtington’s disease

Answer 5

1. degenerative brain disease that appears in early to middle age, usually the early 40s.
   - A genetic defect that causes deterioration in specific area of the brain, basal ganglia.
   - Broad changes in personality, cognitive functioning, and, particularly, motor behavior.

Question 6

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Answer 6

1. Intellectual disability
2. Present at birth, is caused by the inability of the body to metabolize (break down) phenylalanine, a chemical compound found in many foods.
3. Is caused by a defect in a single gene, with little contribution from other genes or the environmental background
4. Is inherited when both parents are carriers of the gene and pass it on to the child
5. Researchers have discovered a way to correct this disorder
   - By detecting PKU early enough
   - Restrict the amount of phenylalanine in the baby’s diet until the child develops to the point where a normal diet does not harm the brain, usually 6 to 7 years of age

Question 7

Dominant gene

Answer 7

one of a pair of genes that strongly influences a particular trait, and we need only one of them to determine.

Question 8

Recessive gene

Answer 8

must be paired with another (recessive) gene to determine a trait
Gene dominance occurs when one member of a gene pair is consistently expressed over the other.

Question 9

Genome

Answer 9

an individual’s complete set of genes- consists of more than 20,000 genes, polygenic interactions can be quite complex

Question 10

Quantitative genetics

Answer 10

basically sums up all the tiny effects across many genes without necessarily telling us which genes are responsible for which effects

Question 11

Molecular genetics

Answer 11

focuses on examining the actual structure of genes with increasingly advanced technologies such as DNA micro-arrays- allow scientists to analyze thousands of genes at once and identify broad networks of genes that may be contributing to a particular trait

Question 12

Diathesis-stress model

Answer 12

1. individuals inherit tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors -> may then be activated under conditions of stress
2. Each inherited tendency is a diathesis: a condition that makes someone susceptible to developing a disorder
3. When the right kind of life event comes along, the disorder develops
4. Vulnerability
5. The diathesis is genetically based and the stress is environmental but they must interact to roduce a disorder
6. Having a particular vulnerability doesn’t mean you will develop the associated disorder.
   - The smaller the vulnerability, the greater the life stress required to produce athe disorder; conversely, with greater vulnerability, less life stress is required.

Question 13

Vulnerability

Answer 13

tendency is the diathesis; it would become prominent until certain environmental events occurred

Question 14

Gene-environment correlation model/reciprocal gene-environment model

Answer 14

applies to the development of depression, because some people may tend to seek out difficult relationships or other circumstances that lead to depression

Question 15

Cross-fostering

Answer 15

a rat pup born to one mother is assigned to another mother for rearing

Question 16

Epigenetics

Answer 16

1. Genes are turned on or off by by cellular material that is located just outside of the genome
2. That stress, nutrition, or other factors can affect this epigenome -> immediately passed down to the next generation and maybe for several generations
3. The genome itself isn’t changed, so if the stressful or inadequate environment disappears, eventually the epigenome will fade
4. Constraining environmental influences have implications for preventing unwanted personality traits or temperaments and even psychological disorders
5. Environmental manipulations, particularly early in life, may do much to override the genetically influenced tendency to develop undesirable behavioral and emotional reactions

Question 17

Neuroscience

Answer 17

1. how the nervous system, how the brain works is central to any understanding of our behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes.
   - Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
   - Peripheral nervous system- somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Question 18

Neurons

Answer 18

1. nerve cells
2. The brain uses an average of 140 billion nerve cells
3. Control every thought and action
4. Transmit information throughout the nervous system
5. The typical neuron contains a central cell body with two kinds of branches
   - Dendrite
   - Axon

Question 19

Dendrite

Answer 19

have numerous receptors that receive messages in the form of chemical impulses from other nerve cells, which are converted into electrical impulses

Question 20

Axon

Answer 20

1. transmits these impulses to other neurons

- Any one nerve cell may have multiple connections to other neurons

Question 21

Synaptic cleft

Answer 21

1. the impulse must pass to get to the next neuron

- The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite

Question 22

Neurotransmitters

Answer 22

1. the biochemicals that are released from the axon of one neuron and transmit the impulse to the dendrite receptors of another neuron
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
3. Serotonin
4. Dopamine
5. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
6. Glutamate
7. Excesses or insufficiencies in some neurotransmitters are associated with different groups of psychological disorders
8. Reduced levels or insufficiencies in some neurotransmitters -> different groups of psychological disorders
   - Reduced levels of GABA -> excessive anxiety
   - Increases in dopamine activity -> schizophrenia
   - High levels of norepinephrine and low levels of serotonin -> depression

Question 23

Glia (glial) cells

Answer 23

1. another type of cell that comprises the nervous system
2. Outnumber neurons by a ratio of about 10 to 1
3. There are different types of glia cells with several specific functions
4. Modulate neurotransmitter activity

Question 24

Brain stem

Answer 24

1. lower and more ancient part of the brain
2. Found in most animals
3. Handles most of the essential automatic functions
4. Moving around in a coordinated way
5. Hindbrain
6. Midbrain
7. Thalamus and hypothalamus

Question 25

Hindbrain

Answer 25

1. lowest part of the brain stem
2. Medulla, pons, cerebellum
3. Regulates many automatic activities
4. Cerebellum: controls motor coordination and psychological disorder autism

Question 26

Midbrain

Answer 26

1. coordinates movement with sensory input and contains parts of the reticular activating system
   - Contributes to processes of arousal and tension

Question 27

Thalamus and hypothalamus

Answer 27

1. at the top of the brain stem
2. Regulating behavior and emotion
3. Function primarily as a relay between the forebrain and the remaining lower areas of the brain stem

Question 28

Forebrain

Answer 28

more advanced and evolved more recently

Question 29

Limbic system

Answer 29

1. at the base of the forebrain
2. Just above the thalamus and hypothalamus
3. Located around the edge of the center of the brain
4. Hippocampus (seahorse), cingulate gyrus (girdle), septum (partition), and amygdala (almond)
5. Helps regulate our emotional experiences and expressions
6. Our ability to learn and to control our impulses
7. The basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger, and thirst

Question 30

Basal ganglia

Answer 30

1. at the base of the forebrain, include the caudate (tailed) nucleus
2. Damage -> make us change our posture or twitch or shakes
3. Control motor activity

Question 31

Cerebral cortex

Answer 31

1. the largest part of the forebrain
2. Contains more than 80% of all neurons in the central nervous system
3. Provides us with our distinctly human qualities, allowing us to look to the future and plan, to reason, and to create
4. Is divided into two hemispheres- both are capable of perceiving, thinking and remembering

Question 32

Temporal lobe

Answer 32

recognizing various sights and sounds and with long-term memory storage

Question 33

Parietal lobe

Answer 33

recognizing various sensations of touch and monitoring body positioning

Question 34

Occipital lobe

Answer 34

integrating and making sense of various visual inputs

Question 35

Prefrontal cortex

Answer 35

1. the front (or anterior) of the frontal lobe
2. High cognitive functions
3. Long-term memory
4. Synthesizes all information received from other parts of the brain and decides how to respond
5. Enables us to relate to the world around us and the people in it- to behave as social animals

Question 36

The Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 36

Coordinates with the brain stem to make sure the body is working properly

Question 37

Somatic nervous system

Answer 37

1. Controls the muscles

2. Voluntary movement

Question 38

Autonomic nervous system

Answer 38

1. Regulate the cardiovascular system and the endocrine system and to perform various other functions, including aiding digestion and regulating body temperature

Question 39

Endocrine system

Answer 39

1. each endocrine gland produces its own chemical messenger- hormone -> releases it directly into the bloodstream
2. Adrenal glands- epinephrine (adrenaline) to stress, salt-regulating hormones
3. Thyroid gland- thyroxine to facilitates energy metabolism and growth
4. Pituitary is a master gland that produces a variety of regulatory hormones
5. Gonadal glands produce sex hormones
6. Is closely related to the immune system
7. Is also implicated in a variety of disorders
8. Contributing to stress-related physical disorders
9. Endocrine regulation- depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and other disorders

Question 40

Psychoneuroendocrinology

Answer 40

1. depressed patients may respond better to an antidepressant medication if it is administered in combinatin with a thyroid hormone or for some older depressed men coadministration of testosterone may enhance antideppresant effects

Question 41

Sympathetic nervous system

Answer 41

1. Mobilizing the body during times of stress or danger by rapidly activating the organs and glands under its control
2. The heart beats faster -> increasing the flow of blood to the muscles -> respiration increases- allowing more oxygen to get into blood and brain -> adrenal glands are stimulated = all three changes help mobilize us for action
3. Mediates a substantial part of our “emergency” or “alarm” reaction

Question 42

Parasympathetic system

Answer 42

1. Balance the sympathetic system
2. Because we could not operate in a state of hyperarousal and preparedness forever, the parasympathetic nervous system has been active for a while, normalizing our arousal and facilitating the storage of energy by helping the digestive process.

Question 43

Agonists

Answer 43

effectively increase the activity of a neurotransmitter by mimicking its effects

Question 44

Antagonists

Answer 44

decrease, or block, a neurotransmitter

Question 45

Inverse agonists

Answer 45

produce effects opposite to those produced by the neurotransmitter

Question 46

Reuptake

Answer 46

After a neurotransmitter is released, it is quickly drawn back from the synaptic cleft into the same neuron

Question 47

Glutamate

Answer 47

excitatory transmitter that “turns on” many different neurons, leading to action.

Question 48

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Answer 48

1. an inhibitory neurotransmitter
2. Inhibit/regulate the transmission of information and action potentials
3. Reduces postsynaptic activity
4. Inhibits a variety of behaviors and emotions
5. Was discovered before glutamate
6. Reduce anxiety
7. The benzodiazepines or minor tranquilizers makes it easier for GABA
8. Rides on many circuits distributed widely throughout the brain
9. Reduce overall arousal somewhat and to temper our emotional responses
10. Minor tranquilizers have an anticonvulsant effect
    - Relaxing muscle groups that may be subject to spasms
11. Drugs increase GABA -> under evaluation as treatments for insomnia
12. Reduce levels of anger, hostility, aggression, and perhaps even positive emotional states such as eager anticipation and pleasure
13. GABA system is composed of a number of subsystems

Question 49

Serotonin

Answer 49

1. 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT)
2. Monoamine category of neurotransmitters
3. Six major circuits of serotonin spread from the midbrain, looping around its various parts
4. Many of them ending up in the cortex
5. Influence a great deal of our behavior, particularly the way we process information
6. Was genetically influenced dysregulation in this system that contributed to depression
7. Regulates our behavior, moods, and thought processes
8. Extremely low activity levels of serotonin -> less inhibition and with instability, impulsivity and the tendency to overreact to situations
9. Low serotonin activity -> aggression, suicide, impulsive overating, and excessive sexual behavior
10. Other currents in the brain, or other psychological or social influences, may well compensate for low serotonin activity
11. Low serotonin activity may make us more vulnerable to certain problematic behavior without directly causing it
12. High levels of serotonin may interact with GABA to counteract glutamate
13. Has slightly different effects depending on the type or subtype of receptors
    - 15 different receptors
    - Classes of drugs primarily affect the serotonin system
    - Tricyclic antidepressants such as imipramine
    - Selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)- fluoxetine (Prozac) affects serotonin more directly than other drugs
    - -Treat a number of psychological disorders, particularly anxiety, mood, and eating disorders
    - Herbal medication St. John’s wort affects serotonin levels

Question 50

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

Answer 50

1. Like epinephrine (catecholamine)
2. Part of the endocrine system
3. Stimulate at least two groups of receptors called alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors
4. Beta-blockers: class of drugs for people has hypertension or difficulties with regulating heart rate
   - Block the beta-receptors so that their response to a surge of norepinephrine is reduced, which keeps blood pressure and heart rate down
5. A number of norepinephrine circuits
   - One major circuit begins the hindbrain -> controls basic bodily functions
   - Another circuit appears to influence the emergency reactions or alarm responses
6. May bear some relationship to states of panic
7. Acts in a more general way to regulate or modulate certain behavioral tendencies
8. Is not directly involved in specific patterns of behavior or in psychological disorders

Question 51

Dopamine

Answer 51

1. Catecholamine
2. The similarity of its chemical structure to epinephrine and norepinephrine
3. Has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and disorders of addiction
4. Depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
5. Drug reserpine
   - Block specific dopamine receptors -> lowering dopamine activity
   - In schizophrenia dopamine circuits may be too active
6. The recent development of second-generation antipsychotic drugs such as clozapine, which has only weak effects on certain dopamine receptors, suggests this idea may need revising
7. In its various circuits throughout specific regions of the brain, dopamine also seems to have a more general effect
   - A switch that turns on various brain circuits possibly associated with certain types of behavior
   - Once the switch is turned on, other neurotransmitters may then inhibit or facilitate emotions or behavior
8. Merge and cross with serotonin circuits at many points and therefore influence many of the same behaviors
   - Dopamine: exploratory, outgoing, pleasure-seeking behaviors
   - Serotonin: inhibition and constraint
   - They balance each other
9. At least five different receptor sites that are selectively sensitive to dopamine
10. One of a class of drugs that affects the dopamine circuits= L-dopa
    - Dopamine agonist- increases levels of dopamine
11. One of the systems that dopamine switches on is the locomotor system
    - Regulates ability to move in a coordinated way
    - Is influenced by serotonin activity
12. Deficiencies in dopamine -> Parkinson’s disease
    - Deterioration in motor behavior
13. L-dopa- reducing some of these motor disabilities

Question 52

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Answer 52

1. Severe anxiety-based disorder
2. Intrusive, frightening thoughts
3. Compulsive rituals
4. Intriguing differences between the brains of patients of patients with OCD and the brains of -Patients with OCD have increased activity in the part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex called the orbital surface
   - Increased activity in cingulate gyrus -> caudate nucleus, a circuit that extends from the orbital section of the frontal area of the cortex to parts of the thalamus
   - If one area is active, the other areas are also.
   - These areas contain several pathways of neurotransmitters, and one of the most concentrated is serotonin.
   - Leisons (damage) that interrupt serotonin circuits seem to impair the ability to ignore irrelevant external cues, making the organism overactive.
   - Acting on every thought or impulse that enters our heads
5. Brain-imaging studies are often inconsistent with one another on many important details.
   - Sometimes pinpointing the increased or decreased activity is difficult because brains differ in their structure
   - The orbital frontal cortex is implicated in other anxiety disorders in this area of the brain may just increase negative affect more generally rather than OCD specifically.
   - It is possible that activity in this area may simply be a result of the repetitive thinking and ritualistic behavior that characteristics OCD, rather than a cause.

Question 53

Cognitive science

Answer 53

1. is concerned with how we acquire and process information and how we store and ultimately retrieve it (one of the processes involved in memory)
   - Technically, these cognitive processes are unconscious
2. Field of study that examines how humans and other animals acquire, process, store, and retrieve information

Question 54

Modeling/Observational learning

Answer 54

learn just as much by observing what happens to someone else in a given situation

Question 55

Prepared learning

Answer 55

1. we have become highly prepared for learning about certain types of objects or situations over the course of evolution because this knowledge contributes to the survival of the species
   - A sex difference
   - “Prepared learning” may account for the greater incidence of snake and spider phobias in adult women
   - It would have been more important for women, in their roles as foragers and gatherers, to develop a tendency to avoid snakes and spiders than males, in their primary roles as risk-taking hunters
   - Survival is associated with quickly learning to avoid poisonous food

Question 56

Blind sight/unconscious vision

Answer 56

normal individuals, provided with hypnotic suggestions that they are blind, are able to function visually but have no awareness or memory of their visual abilities

Question 57

Implicit memory

Answer 57

is apparent when someone clearly acts on the basis of things that have happened in the past but can’t remember the events

Question 58

Explicit memory

Answer 58

good memory for events

Question 59

Black box

Answer 59

unobservable feelings and cognitions inferred from an individual’s self-report

Question 60

Stroop color-naming paradigm

Answer 60

1. Participants are shown a variety of words, each printed in a different color
2. Asked to name the colors
3. The meaning of the word interferes with the participant’s ability to process color information
4. People with certain psychological disorders are much slower at naming the colors of words associated with their problem

Question 61

Flight or fight response

Answer 61

1. Charles Darwin- the first great emotion theorist
2. To be programmed in all animals
3. The alarm reaction that activates during potentially life-threatening emergencies
4. The physical rush of adrenaline that we feel in extreme danger is to mobilize us to escape the danger (flight) or to fend it off (fight)

Question 62

Emotion

Answer 62

1. a subjective feeling of terror, a strong motivation for behavior (escaping or fighting), and a complex physiological or arousal response
2. Action tendency
3. Tendency to behave in a certain way, elicited by an external event (threat) and a feeling state (terror) and accompanied by a (possibly) characteristic physiological response
4. Motivate us to carry out a behavior
5. Decreasing unpleasant feelings motivates us to escape
6. Short-lived, temporary states lasting from several minutes to several hours, occurring in response to an external event.

Question 63

Mood

Answer 63

1. more persistent period of affect or emotionality
2. Enduring or recurring states of depression or excitement (mania) as mood disorders
3. Anxiety disorders: enduring or chronic anxiety- mood disorders
4. Emotional disorders

Question 64

Affect

Answer 64

1. momentary emotional tone that accompanies what we say or do
2. Summarize commonalities among emotional states characteristic of an individual
3. Negative: fearful, anxious, and depressed
4. Positive: pleasant, joyful, excited

Question 65

Panic attack

Answer 65

Normal emotion of fear occurring at the wrong time, when there is nothing to be afraid of

Question 66

Bipolar disorder

Answer 66

1. Mania: become overly excited and joyful
   - Think they have the world on a string
   - Can do anything they want and spend as much money as they want because everything will turn out all right
   - Every little event is the most wonderful and exciting experience they have ever had.
2. Alternate periods of excitement with periods of extreme sadness and distress, when they feel that all is lost and the world is a gloomy and hopeless place.
3. Depression: during extreme sadness or distress, people are unable to experience any pleasure in life and often find it difficult even to get out of bed and move around.
   - If hopelessness becomes acute, they are at risk for suicide.
   - A defining feature of many mood disorders

Question 67

Bulimia nervosa

Answer 67

1. the severe eating disorder, occurs almost entirely in young females
2. Cultural emphasis on female thinness

Question 68

Equifinality

Answer 68

1. a particular behavior or disorder may have a number of causes
2. We must consider a number of paths to a given outcome

Question 69

Learned Helplessness Theory of Depression

Answer 69

1. Martin Seligman’s theory that people become anxious and depressed when they make an attribution that they have no control over the stress in their lives (whether or not they actually have control)

Question 70

Learned Optimism

Answer 70

if people are faced with considerable stress and difficulties in their lives nevertheless display an optimistic, upbeat attitude, they are likely to function better psychologically and physically.

Question 71

Fright Disorders

Answer 71

exaggerated startle responses, and other observable fear and anxiety reactions.

Question 72

Susto

Answer 72

A latin American fright disorder which describes various anxiety-based symptoms, including insomnia, irritability, phobias, and the marked somatic symptoms of sweating and increased heart rate. The cause is the individual believes that he or she has become the object of black magic, or witchcraft

Question 73

Tend and Befriend

Answer 73

a way women respond to stress by protecting themselves and their young through nurturing behavior (tend) and forming alliances with larger social groups, particularly other women (befriend)

Question 74

its most likely influence or influences: behavioral, biological, emotional, social, and developmental “The fact that some phobias are more common than others (such as fear of heights and snakes) and may have contributed to the survival of the species in the past suggests that phobias may be genetically prewired. This is evidence for which influence?”

Answer 74

Biological

Question 75

its most likely influence or influences: behavioral, biological, emotional, social, and developmental. “Jan’s Husband, Jinx, was an unemployed jerk who spent his life chasing women other than his wife. Jan, happily divorced for years, cannot understand why the smell of Jinx’s brand of aftershave causes her to become nauseated. Which influence best explains her response?”

Answer 75

Behavioral or Emotional

Question 76

its most likely influence or influences: behavioral, biological, emotional, social, and developmental. “Nathan, age 16, finds it more difficult than his 7-year-old sister to adjust to his parents’ recent separation. This may be explained by what influences?”

Answer 76

Developmental

Question 77

its most likely influence or influences: behavioral, biological, emotional, social, and developmental “A traumatic ride on a Ferris wheel at a young age was most likely to have been the initial cause of Juanita’s fear of heights. Her strong emotional reaction to heights is likely to maintain or even increase her fear. The initial development of the phobia is likely a result of ______ influences; however, _____ influences are likely perpetuating the phobia”

Answer 77

Behavioral (initial) and Emotional (maintenance)

Question 78

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “Movement, breathing, and sleeping depend on the ancient part of the brain, which is present in most animals”

Answer 78

Brain Stem

Question 79

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “Which neurotransmitter binds to neuron receptor sites, inhibiting postsynaptic activity and reducing overall arousal?”

Answer 79

GABA

Question 80

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “Which neurotransmitter is a switch that turns on various brain circuits?”

Answer 80

Dopamine

Question 81

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “Which neurotransmitter seems to be involved in our emergency reactions or alarm responses?”

Answer 81

Norepinephrine

Question 82

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “This area contains part of the reticular activating system and coordinates movement with sensory output.”

Answer 82

Midbrain

Question 83

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “Which neurotransmitter is believed to influence the way we process information, as well as to moderate or inhibit our behavior?”

Answer 83

Serotonin

Question 84

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “More than 80% of the neurons in the human central nervous are contained in this part of the brain, which gives us distinct qualities.”

Answer 84

Cerebral Cortex

Question 85

Match each of the following with its description below: frontal lobe, brain stem, GABA, midbrain, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and cerebral cortex. “This area is responsible for most of our memory, thinking, and reasoning capabilities and makes us social animals.”

Answer 85

Brain Stem

Question 86

Check your understanding of behavioral and cognitive influences by identifying the descriptions. Choose your answers from: Learned Helplessness, modeling, prepared learning, and implicit memory “Karen noticed that every time Tyrone behaved well at lunch, the teacher praised him. Karen decided to behave better to receive praise herself.”

Answer 86

Modeling

Question 87

Check your understanding of behavioral and cognitive influences by identifying the descriptions. Choose your answers from: Learned Helplessness, modeling, prepared learning, and implicit memory. “Josh stopped trying to please his father because he never knew whether his father would be proud or outraged.”

Answer 87

Learned Helplessness

Question 88

Check your understanding of behavioral and cognitive influences by identifying the descriptions. Choose your answers from: Learned Helplessness, modeling, prepared learning, and implicit memory. “Greg 3. Greg fell into a lake as a baby and almost drowned. Even though Greg has no recollection of the event, he hates to be around large bodies of water.”

Answer 88

Implicit memory

Question 89

Check your understanding of behavioral and cognitive influences by identifying the descriptions. Choose your answers from: Learned Helplessness, modeling, prepared learning, and implicit memory. “Juanita was scared to death of the tarantula, even though she knew it wasn’t likely to hurt her.”

Answer 89

Prepared Learning

Question 90

What we _____ is strongly influenced by our social environments.

Answer 90

Fear

Question 91

The likelihood of your having a particular phobia is powerfully influenced by your ____.

Answer 91

Gender

Question 92

A large number of studies have demonstrated that the greater the number and frequency of ____ relationships and ____ the longer you are likely to live.

Answer 92

Social, Contacts

Question 93

The effect of social and interpersonal factors on the expression of physical and psychological disorders may differ with ____

Answer 93

Age

Question 94

The principle of ____ is used in developmental psychopathology to indicate that we must consider a number of paths to a given outcome

Answer 94

Equifinality

Question 95

Which approach to psychopathology considers biological, social, behavioral, emotional, cognitive and developmental influences?

Answer 95

Multidimensional

Question 96

Much of our development and most of our behavior, personality, and IQ are more influenced by many genes, each contributing only a portion of the overall effect. This type of influence is known as:

Answer 96

Polygenic

Question 97

Behavioral genetics research has concluded that:

Answer 97

Genetic factors that contribute to psychological disorders account for less than half of the explanation

Question 98

Which portion of the brain is responsible for complex cognitive activities such as reasoning, planning, and creating?

Answer 98

Cerebral Cortex

Question 99

John is startled by a loud crash in his apartment. His heart immediately starts beating rapidly and the pace of his breathing increases. What part of the nervous system is responsible for this physiological response?

Answer 99

Sympathetic Nervous System

Question 100

Which neurotransmitter appears to reduce overall arousal and dampen emotional responses?

Answer 100

GABA

Question 101

Martin Seligman noted that when rats or other animals encounter conditions over which they have no control, they give up attempting to cope and seem to develop the animal equivalent of depression. This is referred to as:

Answer 101

Learned Helplessness

Question 102

Which concept explains why fears of snakes and heights are more common (or more easily learned) than fears of cats and flowers?

Answer 102

Prepared Learning

Question 103

Recent research on implicit memory suggests that:

Answer 103

Memories outside our awareness may influence psychopathology, just as Freud speculated

Question 104

Emotion comprises all of the following components EXCEPT: (Behavior, Genetics, Cognition, Physiology)

Answer 104

Genetics