Chapter 2 An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology Flashcards
Multidimensional integrative approach
- Biological dimensions include causal factors from the fields of genetics and neuroscience
- Psychological dimensions include causal factors from behavioral and cognitive processes, including learned helplessness, social learning, prepared learning, and even unconscious processes
- Emotional influences
- Social and interpersonal influences
- Developmental influences
linear or one-dimensional model
trace the origins of behavior to a single cause
Multidimensional model
- A system, or feedback loop, may have independent inputs at many different points, but as each input becomes part of the whole it can no longer be considered independent
- Causality is systemic
- Any particular influence contributing to psychopathology cannot be considered out of context
- Context: biology and behavior of the individual, as well as the cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural environment because any one component of the system inevitably affects the other components.
Genes
- long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at various locations on chromosomes, within the cell nucleus.
- Gregor Mendel in the 19th century
- Physical characteristics are determined- or at least strongly influenced- by our genetic endowment.
- Other factors in the environment influence our physical appearance
- Are affected by nutritional, social, and cultural factors
- Our genes seldom determine our physical development in any absolute way.
- Provide some boundaries to our development
- Exactly where we go within these boundaries depends on environmental influences
Hungtington’s disease
- degenerative brain disease that appears in early to middle age, usually the early 40s.
- A genetic defect that causes deterioration in specific area of the brain, basal ganglia.
- Broad changes in personality, cognitive functioning, and, particularly, motor behavior.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
- Intellectual disability
- Present at birth, is caused by the inability of the body to metabolize (break down) phenylalanine, a chemical compound found in many foods.
- Is caused by a defect in a single gene, with little contribution from other genes or the environmental background
- Is inherited when both parents are carriers of the gene and pass it on to the child
- Researchers have discovered a way to correct this disorder
- By detecting PKU early enough
- Restrict the amount of phenylalanine in the baby’s diet until the child develops to the point where a normal diet does not harm the brain, usually 6 to 7 years of age
Dominant gene
one of a pair of genes that strongly influences a particular trait, and we need only one of them to determine.
Recessive gene
must be paired with another (recessive) gene to determine a trait
Gene dominance occurs when one member of a gene pair is consistently expressed over the other.
Genome
an individual’s complete set of genes- consists of more than 20,000 genes, polygenic interactions can be quite complex
Quantitative genetics
basically sums up all the tiny effects across many genes without necessarily telling us which genes are responsible for which effects
Molecular genetics
focuses on examining the actual structure of genes with increasingly advanced technologies such as DNA micro-arrays- allow scientists to analyze thousands of genes at once and identify broad networks of genes that may be contributing to a particular trait
Diathesis-stress model
- individuals inherit tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors -> may then be activated under conditions of stress
- Each inherited tendency is a diathesis: a condition that makes someone susceptible to developing a disorder
- When the right kind of life event comes along, the disorder develops
- Vulnerability
- The diathesis is genetically based and the stress is environmental but they must interact to roduce a disorder
- Having a particular vulnerability doesn’t mean you will develop the associated disorder.
- The smaller the vulnerability, the greater the life stress required to produce athe disorder; conversely, with greater vulnerability, less life stress is required.
Vulnerability
tendency is the diathesis; it would become prominent until certain environmental events occurred
Gene-environment correlation model/reciprocal gene-environment model
applies to the development of depression, because some people may tend to seek out difficult relationships or other circumstances that lead to depression
Cross-fostering
a rat pup born to one mother is assigned to another mother for rearing
Epigenetics
- Genes are turned on or off by by cellular material that is located just outside of the genome
- That stress, nutrition, or other factors can affect this epigenome -> immediately passed down to the next generation and maybe for several generations
- The genome itself isn’t changed, so if the stressful or inadequate environment disappears, eventually the epigenome will fade
- Constraining environmental influences have implications for preventing unwanted personality traits or temperaments and even psychological disorders
- Environmental manipulations, particularly early in life, may do much to override the genetically influenced tendency to develop undesirable behavioral and emotional reactions
Neuroscience
- how the nervous system, how the brain works is central to any understanding of our behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes.
- Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system- somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
Neurons
- nerve cells
- The brain uses an average of 140 billion nerve cells
- Control every thought and action
- Transmit information throughout the nervous system
- The typical neuron contains a central cell body with two kinds of branches
- Dendrite
- Axon
Dendrite
have numerous receptors that receive messages in the form of chemical impulses from other nerve cells, which are converted into electrical impulses
Axon
- transmits these impulses to other neurons
- Any one nerve cell may have multiple connections to other neurons
Synaptic cleft
- the impulse must pass to get to the next neuron
- The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite
Neurotransmitters
- the biochemicals that are released from the axon of one neuron and transmit the impulse to the dendrite receptors of another neuron
- Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
- Serotonin
- Dopamine
- Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
- Glutamate
- Excesses or insufficiencies in some neurotransmitters are associated with different groups of psychological disorders
- Reduced levels or insufficiencies in some neurotransmitters -> different groups of psychological disorders
- Reduced levels of GABA -> excessive anxiety
- Increases in dopamine activity -> schizophrenia
- High levels of norepinephrine and low levels of serotonin -> depression
Glia (glial) cells
- another type of cell that comprises the nervous system
- Outnumber neurons by a ratio of about 10 to 1
- There are different types of glia cells with several specific functions
- Modulate neurotransmitter activity
Brain stem
- lower and more ancient part of the brain
- Found in most animals
- Handles most of the essential automatic functions
- Moving around in a coordinated way
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Thalamus and hypothalamus