Chapter 2 Flashcards
1
Q
how the nervous system works
A
- Provides commands to organs, muscles, etc. through neurons, which transmit electrochemical signals to one another using neurotransmitters (can be inhibitory or excitatory)
- Signal goes from dendrite -> cell body -> axon -> across the synapse to the next dendrite
- – Axons surrounded by myelin sheath to increase speed of impulses
2
Q
central nervous system
A
- Structure: brain and spinal cord
- 3 main parts of brain: forebrain, cerebellum, brainstem
- Spinal Cord: transmits messages between brain and body using neurons
3
Q
forebrain structure (nervous system)
A
- Uppermost part of brain
- composed of telencephalon (cerebrum and limbic system) and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)
4
Q
cerebrum (nervous system)
A
- part of telencephalon in forebrain
- has 2 halves (right and left hemisphere) and include cerebral cortex
- Structure/function of 4 lobes that make up cerebral cortex:
- Frontal lobe: motor function and mental activities like planning, emotion, self-awareness, personality, etc.
- Temporal lobe: hearing, vision, memory
- Occipital lobe: vision
- Parietal lobe: body sensations like pain, cold, heat, touch, body movement
5
Q
diancephalon (nervous system)
A
- in forebrain; composed of thalamus and hypothalamus
- Thalamus: directs sensory messages to/from cerebrum and skeletal muscles
- Hypothalamus: emotions and motivation (ie. Eating, drinking, sex) -> maintaining homeostasis
6
Q
limbic system (nervous system)
A
- Part of the telencephalon in the forebrain
- Important for expression of emotions
7
Q
structure/function of cerebellum (nervous system)
A
- Below cerebrum
- Coordinates movements and maintains body balance
8
Q
functions of brainstem parts (nervous system)
A
- Midbrain: relays messages to the forebrain
- Pons: eye movements, facial expressions, chewing
- Reticular system: controls sleep, arousal, and attention
- Medulla: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
9
Q
peripheral nervous system
A
- 2 parts: somatic and autonomic
- Somatic: sensory and motor functions
- Afferent neurons carry messages from sense organ to spinal cord; efferent neurons carry messages to sense organs
- Autonomic: internal organs
- Composed of sympathetic and parasympathetic
10
Q
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic nervous system
A
- part of peripheral nervous system
- Sympathetic: mobilizes energy so we can take action (ie. Increasing blood flow, decreases salivation, etc.)
- Parasympathetic: regulates calming processes so we can store energy (ie. Digesting food, increasing salivation)
11
Q
structure and function of endocrine system
A
- Set of glands that sends chemical messages using hormones secreted by the glands
- Linked to nervous system by the hypothalamus -> gland below it is pituitary gland (“master gland”)
12
Q
function of adrenal glands and role in endocrine system
A
- On top of kidneys, release hormones in response to emergencies and stress (ie. Cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine)
- Cortisol: control swelling when we’re injured
- Epinephrine and norepinephrine: produce bodily reactions like increased heart and respiration rates
13
Q
function of thymus, thyroid, and pancreas in endocrine system
A
- Thymus: in chest; development of anti-bodies and immunities against disease
- Thyroid: in neck, regulates body’s activity level and growth (hypothyrodism = low activity levels, weight gain; hyperthyroidism = high activity level, short attention span)
- Pancreas: regulates blood sugar/glucose by producing glucagon (raises blood sugar) and insulin (lowers it)
14
Q
digestive system
A
- Breaks down what we ingest, converts it into chemicals the body can use, and excretes the rest
- Begins at mouth (chemical and mechanical digestion) -> esophagus (pushes food down to stomach) -> stomach (churns food) -> small intestine/duodenum (neutralizes acid, breaks down, absorbs) -> large intestine/colon (absorbs water, converts to feces) -> rectum (stored until defecation)
15
Q
common disorders of digestive system
A
- peptic ulcers
- hepatitis
- cirrhosis
- cancer
16
Q
common disorders of digestive system: peptic ulcers
A
- sores in lining of stomach or intestine
- Caused by bacterial infection and chronic excess gastric juices that erode lining
- Symptom: abdominal pain
- High levels of stress increase chances of this
17
Q
common disorders of digestive system: hepatitis
A
- inflamed liver, can’t function
- Caused by contaminated food/water (Hep A) or through sexual contact or blood (Hep B and C)
- Symptoms: flu-like, jaundice
18
Q
common disorders of digestive system: cirrhosis
A
- liver cells die and are replaced by non-functional scar tissue -> impairs function
- Caused by hepatitis and alcohol abuse
19
Q
common disorders of digestive system: cancer
A
- can occur anywhere in digestive tract
- Colon and rectum especially susceptible
- Chances increase for 40+ year-olds
20
Q
3 main outcomes of metabolism (digestive system)
A
- Synthesis of new cell material from proteins and minerals to build and repair the body
- Regulation of body processes through vitamins, proteins, minerals, etc.
- Energy to heat and fuel body
21
Q
basal metabolic rate (digestive system)
A
- The number of calories we burn when our bodies are at rest
- Expressed in terms of calories per area of body surface per hour (age and gender also influences it)
22
Q
respiratory system
A
- Provides body with oxygen and gets rid of Co2
- Air enters through nose/mouth -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchial tubes -> lungs -> bronchioles -> alveoli
23
Q
5 common disorders of respiratory system
A
- Pneumonia: bacterial or viral infection inflaming the bronchial tubes or the alveoli
- Emphysema: walls between alveoli are destroyed
- Pneumoconiosis: chronic dust inhalation leading to accumulations of dust on alveoli and bronchioles, blocking air
- Asthma: bronchial airways narrowed and inflames; spasms; mucus -> usually due to an irritant (can be chronic)
- Lung cancer: crowds out cells that aid respiration
24
Q
cardiovascular system
A
- transports materials (ie. Oxygen, nutrients) through blood to help body function; gets rid of waste
- Blood goes from heart -> blood vessels (capillaries, arteries, veins) -> cells and tissues
25
Q
structure and function of heart (cardiovascular system)
A
- Made up of muscle
- Muscular portion of wall = myocardium
- 4 chambers: 2 atriums and 2 ventricles
- Coronary arteries and veins bring oxygen and nutrients and take co2 away (arteries = blood away from heart; veins = blood to heart)
- Beats/pumps to circulate blood throughout the body
26
Q
4 common disorders of cardiovascular system
A
- Arteriosclerosis: narrowing of arteries due to atherosclerosis (accumulation and hardening of plaques/fatty patches in artery walls); raises blood pressure
- Myocardial infarction/heart attack: death of heart muscle tissue due to arterial blockage (ie. From a clot in an artery with arteriosclerosis)
- Congestive heart failure: arteriosclerosis reduces heart’s pumping capacity permanently
- Angina pectoris: victim feels chest pain because of brief obstruction in artery, but no damage occurs
27
Q
factors that influence blood pressure (cardiovascular system)
A
- Fluid dynamics:
- Cardiac output (volume of fluid pumped per minute)
- Blood volume (total amount of blood in system)
- Peripheral resistance (difficulty fluid has passing through tubes)
- Elasticity (ability to expand/contract)
- Viscosity (thickness of fluid)
- Everyday life factors:
- Temperature of environment
- Activity/exercise
- Emotional experience (ie. Stress, anger)
28
Q
composition of blood (cardiovascular system)
A
- Formed elements: Cells/cell-like structures (red blood cells, leukocytes/white blood cells, platelets)
- Plasma: Liquid (water, proteins, etc.)
29
Q
common blood-related disorders (cardiovascular system)
A
- Aneurysm: bulge in weakened section of artery or vein -> if it ruptures the blood vessel, person could die
- Stroke: blood supply to brain is disrupted due to rupture or clot
30
Q
immune system
A
- Fights to defend your body against foreign invaders (antigens) like bacteria and viruses
- Composed of lymphatic/lymphoid organs (deploy lymphocytes/white blood cells)
31
Q
lympathic/lymphoid organs (immune system)
A
- Bone marrow: lymphocytes originate here
- Thymus: lymphocytes mature here
- Lymph nodes and vessels: capture and filter antigens in lymph, empty cleansed cells into bloodstream
- Spleen: filters antigens in blood
32
Q
2 types of white blood cells (immune system)
A
- Lymphocytes: fight foreign matter
- Phagocytes: patrol body and ingest antigens
33
Q
non-specific vs. specific immune mechanisms
A
- Non-specific: respond to any type of antigen (phagocytes are involved in non-specific immunity)
- Specific: tailed for attacks against specific antigens (lymphocytes are involved in specific immunity)
- 2 types: humoral and cell-mediated immunity
34
Q
specific immunity: cell-mediated
A
- operates at cell level
- killer t-cells attack targets
- memory t-cells remember previous invaders
- delayed-hypersensitivity t-cells help t-cells grow and are involved in delayed immune reactions
- helper t-cells help other t-cells by stimulating reproduction of lymphocytes to attack
- suppressor t-cells slow down immune processes once infection is conquered
35
Q
specific immunity: humoral/antibody-mediated immunity
A
- attacks bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses before they invade cells
- B-cells produce antibodies that slow down invaders, recruit other proteins to burst invaders, and memory B-cells remember them
36
Q
role of lymphatic system in immunity
A
Filters lymph; makes, stores, and releases lymphocytes
37
Q
common disorders of the immune system
A
- Rheumatoid arthritis: immune response directed against tissues and bones at the joints, damaging them
- Rheumatic fever: muscles of heart are targeted, damaging valves
- Multiple sclerosis: immune system attacks myelin sheath of neurons
- Systemic lupus erythematosus: affects various body parts like sin and heart
38
Q
factors that contribute to a less-than-optimal immune system
A
- Developmental changes: immune system becomes increasingly more effective during childhood, then declining in old age
- Lifestyles, stress, and immune function: unhealthy lifestyles (ie. Smoking, being sedentary, poor nutrition) associated with impaired immune function; high levels of stress associated with poor immune function
- Autoimmune diseases
