Chapter 2 Flashcards
aden/o
gland
adip/o
fat
anter/o
before
caud/o
lower part of body, tail
cephal/o
head
cyt/o, -cyte:
cell
end-, endo-
in, within, inside
exo-
out of, outside, away from
hist/o
tissue
-ologist
specialist
-ology
the science or study of
path/o, -pathy
disease, suffering, feeling, emotion
plas/i, plas/o, -plasia
development, growth, formation
poster/o
behind, toward the back
-stasis, -static
control, maintenance of a constant level
Anatomic reference systems
used to describe the locations of the structural units of the body.
anatomy
the study of the structures of the body
physiology
the study of the functions of the structures of the body (physi means nature or physical, and –ology means study of).
anatomic position
describes the body standing in the standard position. Body is erect and facing forward. Arms are at side with palms facing towards front.
body planes
imaginary vertical and horizontal lines used to divide the body into sections for descriptive purposes.
vertical plane
an up-and-down plane that is at a right angle to the horizon.
sagittal plane
a vertical plane that divides the body into unequal left and right portions.
midsagittal plane
also known as the midline, is the sagittal plane that divides the body into equal left and right halves.
frontal plane
a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. Also known as the coronal plane, it is located at right angles to the sagittal plane.
horizontal plane
a flat, crosswise plane, such as the horizon.
transverse plane
a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. A transverse plane can be at the waist or at any other level across the body.
ventral
refers to the front, or belly side, of the organ or body (ventr means belly side of the body, and –al means pertaining to). Ventral is the opposite of dorsal.
dorsal
refers to the back of the organ or body (dors means back of the body, and –al means pertaining to). Dorsal is the opposite of ventral.
anterior
situated in the front. It also means on the front or forward part of an organ (anter means front or before, and –ior means pertaining to). Anterior is also used in reference to the ventral surface of the body. Anterior is the opposite of posterior.
posterior
situated in the back. It also means on the back part of an organ (poster means back or towards the back, and –ior means pertaining to). Posterior is also used in reference to the dorsal surface of the body. Posterior is the opposite of anterior.
superior
uppermost, above, or toward the head. Superior is the opposite of inferior.
inferior
lowermost, below, or toward the feet. Inferior is the opposite of superior.
cephalic
means toward the head (cephal means head, and –ic means pertaining to). Cephalic is the opposite of caudal.
caudal
toward the lower part of the body (caud means tail or lower part of the body, and –al means pertaining to). Caudal is the opposite of cephalic.
proximal
situated nearest the midline or beginning of a body structure. Proximal is the opposite of distal.
distal
situated farthest from the midline or beginning of a body structure. Distal is the opposite of proximal.
medial
the direction toward, or nearer, the midline. Medial is the opposite of lateral.
lateral
the direction toward, or nearer, the side of the body, away from the midline. Lateral is the opposite of medial. Bilateral means relating to, or having, two sides.
body cavities
the two major cavities are the dorsal (back) and ventral (front). They are the spaces within the body that contain and protect internal organs.
cranial cavity
located within the skull, surrounds and protects the brain. Cranial means pertaining to the skull.
spinal cavity
located within the spinal column, surrounds and protects the spinal cord.
dorsal cavity
located along the back of the body and head, contains organs of the nervous system that coordinate body functions and is divided into two portions (cranial and spinal cavities).
ventral cavity
located along the front of the body, contains the body organs that sustain homeostasis.
homeostasis
the processes through which the body maintains a constant internal environment (home/o means constant, and –stasis means control). The ventral cavity is divided into three portions: thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.
thoracic cavity
also known as the chest cavity or thorax, surrounds and protects the heart and the lungs. The diaphragm is a muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
abdominal cavity
contains the major organs of digestion. This cavity is frequently referred to simply as the abdomen.
pelvic cavity
the space formed by the hip bones and contains the organs of the reproductive and excretory systems.
abdominopelvic cavity
refers to the abdominal and pelvic cavities as a single unit (abdomen/o means abdomen, pelv means pelvis, and –ic means pertaining to).
inguinal
related to the groin, refers to the entire lower area of the abdomen. This includes the groin.
groin
the crease at the junction of the trunk with the upper end of the thigh.
hypochondriac regions
Hypochondriac regions: right and left regions are covered by the lower ribs (hypo- means below, chondr/i means cartilage, and –ac means pertaining to).
hypochondriac
below the ribs. OR an individual with abnormal concern about his or her health.
epigastric region
located above the stomach (epi- means above, gastr means stomach, and –ic means pertaining to).
lumbar regions
right and left regions are located near the inward curve of the spine (lumb means lower back, and –ar means pertaining to). The term lumbar describes the part of the back between the ribs and the pelvis.
umbilical region
surrounds the umbilicus which is commonly known as the belly button or navel. This pit in the center of the abdominal wall marks the point where the umbilical cord was attached before birth.
iliac regions
located near the hip bones (ili means hip bone, and –ac means pertaining to).
hypogastric region
located below the stomach (hypo- means below, gastr means stomach, and –ic means pertaining to).
quadrant
divided into four.
peritoneum
a multilayered membrane that protects and holds the organs in place within the abdominal cavity.
membrane
a thin layer of tissue that covers a surface, lines a cavity, or divides a space or organ.
parietal peritoneum
the outer layer of the peritoneum that lines the interior of the abdominal wall. Parietal means cavity wall.
mesentery
a fused double layer of the parietal peritoneum that attaches parts of the intestine to the interior abdominal wall.
visceral peritoneum
the inner layer of the peritoneum that surrounds the organs of the abdominal cavity. Visceral means relating to the internal organs.
retroperitoneal
located behind the peritoneum (retro- means behind, periton means peritoneum, and –eal means pertaining to).
peritonitus
inflammation of the peritoneum.
cells
the basic structural and functional units of the body. Cells are specialized and grouped together to form tissues and organs.
cytology
The study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and chemistry of the cell (cyt means cell, and –ology means study of).
cytologist
a specialist in the study and analysis of cells.
cell membrane
tissue that surrounds and protects the contents of a cells from the external environment.
cytoplasm
the material within the cell membrane that is not part of the nucleus (cyt/o means cell, and –plasm means formative material of cells).
nucleus
surrounded by the nuclear membrane, is a structure within the cell. It has two important functions: it controls the activities of the cello, and it helps the cell divide.
stem cells
unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division. This is in contrast to other types of cells that have a specialized role and die after a determined life span.
adult stem cells
also known as somatic stem cells, are undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ.
Undifferentiated
not having a specialized function or structure.
Differentiated
having a specialized function or structure.
Hemopoietic
blood forming
Graft-versus-host disease
rejection as in between donor and recipient bone marrow.
Embryonic stem cells
undifferentiated cells that are unlike any specific adult cell; however, they have the important ability to form any adult cell.
gene
a fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes control hereditary disorders and all physical traits such as hair, skin, and eye color.
genetics
the study of how genes are transferred from parents to their children and the role of genes in health and disease (gene means producing, and –tics means pertaining to).
geneticist
a specialist in the field of genetics.
dominant gene
when inherited from either parent, the offspring will inherit that genetic condition or characteristic.
recessive gene
when inherited from both parents, the offspring will have that condition, however it can be transmitted to their offspring.
genome
the complete set of genetic information of an organism.
chromosome
a genetic structure located within the nucleus of each cell. They are made up of DNA molecules containing the body’s genes. Each chromosome contains about 100,000 genes.
somatic cell
any cell in the body except the gametes (sex cells).
gamete
sperm or egg cell. Also known as a sex cell. Only type of cell that does not contain 46 chromosomes. Each egg or sperm has 23 single chromosomes.
helix
a shape twisted like a spiral staircase. A double helix is two of these strands twisted together.
genetic mutation
a change of the sequence of a DNA molecule. Potential causes include exposure to radiation or environmental pollution.
somatic cell mutation
a change within the cells of the body. These changes affect the individual, but cannot be transmitted to the next generation.
gametic cell mutation
a change within the genes in a gamete (sex cell) that can be transmitted by a parent to his or her children.
Genetic engineering
manipulating or splicing of genes for scientific or medical purposes.
genetic disorder
also known as a hereditary disorder, is a pathological condition caused by an absent or defective gene.
cystic fibrosis (CF)
a genetic disorder that is present at birth and affect both the respiratory and digestive systems.
Down syndrome (DS)
a genetic variation that is associated with a characteristic facial appearance, learning disabilities, developmental delays, and physical abnormalities such as heart valve disease.
Hemophilia
A group of hereditary bleeding disorders in which a blood-clotting factor is missing. This blood coagulation disorder is characterized by spontaneous hemorrhages or severe bleeding following an injury.
Huntington’s disease (HD)
a genetic disorder that is passed from parent to child. Causes nerve degeneration with symptoms that most often appear in midlife. Damage eventually results in uncontrolled movements and the loss of some mental abilities.
Muscular dystrophy
a group of genetic diseases that are characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles that control movement.
Phenylketonuria (fen-il-kee-toh-NEW-ree-ah)
A rare genetic disorder in which the essential digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing.
tissue
a group or layer of similarly specialized cells that join together to perform certain specific functions.
histology
The microscopic study of the structure, composition, and function of tissues.
Histologists
a non-physician specialist who studies the microscopic structure of tissues.
Epithelial tissue
forms a protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body. These tissues also form glands.
Epithelium
the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes.
Endothelium
the specialized epithelial tissue that lines the blood and lymph vessels, body cavities, glands, and organs.
connective tissues
support and connect organs and other body tissues.
dense connective tissues
such as bone and cartilage, form the joints and framework of the body.
adipose tissue
also known as fat, provides protective padding, insulation, and support.
loose connective tissue
surrounds various organs and supports both nerve cells and blood vessels.
liquid connective tissues
they are blood and lymph and transport nutrients and waste products throughout the body.
muscle cells
contains cells with the specialized ability to contract and relax.
nerve tissue
contains cells with the specialized ability to react to stimuli and to conduct electrical impulses.
aplasia
The defective development or the congenital absence, of an organ or tissue (a- means without, and –plasia means formation.
Hypoplasia
The incomplete development of an organ or tissue usually due to a deficiency in the number of cells.
anaplasia
a change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other. This abnormal cell development is characteristic of tumor formation in cancers.
Dysplasia
the abnormal development or growth of cells, tissues, or organs.
Hyperplasia
the enlargement of an organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the tissues.
Hypertrophy
a general increase in the bulk of a body part or organ that is due to an increase in the size, but not in the number, of cells in the tissues.
Gland
a group of specialized epithelial cells that are capable of producing secretions.
Secretion
the substance produced by a gland.
Exocrine glands
secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body, such as sweat glands.
Endocrine glands
which produce hormones, do not have ducts. These hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream and are then transported to organs and structures throughout the body.
Adenitis
The inflammation of a gland
Adenocarcinoma
a malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue
Malignant
harmful, capable of spreading, and potentially life threatening
Adenoma
a benign tumor that arises in or resembles glandular tissue.
Adenomalacia
the abnormal softening of a gland.
Adenosis
Any disease or condition of a gland.
Adenosclerosis
The abnormal hardening of a gland
Adenectomy
The surgical removal of a gland.
organ
A somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function.
pathology
The study of disease: its nature and cause as well as the produced changes in structure and function. Pathology also means a condition produced by disease.
pathologist
A physician who specializes in the laboratory analysis of diseased tissue samples to confirm or establish a diagnosis. These tissue specimens can be removed in biopsies, during operations, or in postmortem examinations
Etiology (ee-tee-OL-oh-jee)
The study of the causes of diseases.
Pathogen
A disease-producing microorganism such as a virus.
Transmission
The spread of a disease.
Contamination
A pathogen is possibly present.
Communicable disease
Also known as a contagious disease. Any condition that is transmitted from one person to another either directly or by indirect contact with contaminated objects.
Communicable
Capable of being transmitted.
Indirect contact transmission
refers to situations in which a susceptible person is infected by contact with a contaminated surface. Frequent hand washing is essential for the prevention of disease transmission.
Bloodborne transmission
The spread of a disease through contact with infected blood or other body fluids that are contaminated by infected blood.
Droplet transmission
The spread of diseases such as measles, cold and flu through large respiratory droplets sprayed by coughing or sneezing onto a nearby person or object.
Airborne transmission
occurs through contact with germs floating in the air.
Food-borne and waterborne transmission
Also known as fecal-oral transmission, is caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or water that has not been properly treated to remove contamination or kill any pathogens present.
Vector-borne transmission
The spread of certain disease due to the bite of a vector. As used here, the term vector describes insects or animals such as flies, mites, fleas, ticks, rats, and dogs, that are capable of transmitting a disease. Mosquitoes are the most common vectors, and the diseases they transmit include malaria and West Nile virus.
Epidemiologist
A specialist in the study of outbreaks of disease within a population group.
endemic
Refers to the ongoing presence of a disease within a population, group, or area. For example, the common cold is endemic because it is always present within the general population.
Epidemic
A sudden and widespread outbreak of a disease within a specific population group or area.
Pandemic
An outbreak of a disease occurring over a large geographic area, possibly worldwide.
Functional disorder
Produces symptoms for which no physiological or anatomical cause can be identified. For example, a panic attack is a functional disorder.
Iatrogenic illness (eye-at-roh-JEN-ick): An unfavorable response due to prescribed medical treatment.
An unfavorable response due to prescribed medical treatment.
Idiopathic disorder
An illness without known cause.
Infectious disease
An illness caused by living pathogenic organisms such as bacteria and viruses.
Nosocomial infection (nahs-oh-KOH-mee-al)
A disease acquired in a hospital or clinical setting. Nosocomial comes from the Greek word for hospital.
Organic disorder
Produces symptoms caused by detectable physical changes in the body.
Congenital disorder
An abnormal condition that exists at the time of birth.
Developmental disorder
Also known as a birth defect, can result in an anomaly or malformation such as the absence of a limb or the presence of an extra toe.
Anomaly
A deviation from what is regarded as normal.
Atresia
Describes the congenital absence of a normal body opening or the failure of a structure to be tubular.
Prenatal influences
The mother’s health, her behavior, and the prenatal medical care she does or does not receive before delivery.
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Caused by the mother’s consumption of alcohol during the pregnancy. Characterized by physical and behavior traits, including growth abnormalities, mental retardation, brain damage, and socialization difficulties.
Geriatrics
The study of the medical problems and care of older people.
Internist
A physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders of the internal organs and related body systems.
Geriatrician
A physician who specializes in the care of older people.
Telemetry
The electronic transmission of data about the patient’s heart rhythm. The telemetry unit provides continuous cardiac monitoring for patients with heart problems not requiring intensive care.
Umbilicus
the navel
