Chapter 2 Flashcards
Research whose goal is to make applications to the world and contribute to the solution of social problems.
Applied research.
Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory.
Basic research.
A procedure in which research participants are (falsely) led to believe that their responses will be verified by an infallible lie detector.
Bogus pipeline technique.
Accomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, acts as if he or she is also a participant.
Cofederates.
A factor other than the independent variable that varies between the conditions of an experiment, thereby calling into question what caused any effects on the dependent variable.
Confound.
The extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment maniuplate the variables they were designed to manipulate.
Construct validity.
A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables.
Correlation coefficients.
Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not maniupalted by the researcher.
Correlational research.
A disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which th researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants involvement.
Debreifing.
In the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants.
Deception.
In an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it affected by the independent variable.
Dependent variables.
A form of research that can demonstrat causal relationships because (1) the experimenter has control over the events that occur and (2) participants are randomly assigned to conditions.
Experiment.
The degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously.
Experimental realism.
The effects produced when as experimenter’s expectations about the results of an experiment affect his or her behavior toward a partiicpant and thereby influence the paritipants response.
Experimenter expectancy effects.
The degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations.
External validitiy.
A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur.
Hypothesis.
In an experiment, a factor that experiments manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable.
Independent variables.
An individuals deliberate, voluntary decision to partiicpate in research based on the researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation.
Informed consent.
The degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables.
Internal validity.
The degree to which different observers agree on their observations.
Interrater reliability.
A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.
Meta analysis.
The degree to which the experimmental situation resembles places and events in the real world.
Mundane realism.
The specific procudres for manipulatin or measuring a conceptual variable.
Operational definition.
The practice of researchers reporting their research design, predictions, and plans for data analyses before conducting their study.
Preregistration.
A method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.
Random assignment.
A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study.
Random sampling.
Repeating a research study to see if the results are simliar to those found in the original study.
Replicaiton.
A variable that characterizes preexisting difference among the participants in a study.
Subject variables.
An organized set of proinciples used to explain observed phenomena.
Theory.
Why is learning about research methods in social psychology useful?
They can make you a better, more sophisticated consumer of information. Can improve your reasoning about rela life events and problems.
Describe the steps in doing research in social psychology.
Coming up with ideas, refining them, testing them, and interpreting the meaning of teh results obtained.
Outline several ways for generating research ideas.
Reading about research already published.
Distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory, and describe the connection between the two.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the conditions under which an events will occur.
Theory: An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena.
A hyptheses proliferate and data are collected to test hypotheses, a more advanced step in the research process may take place - the development of a theory. The goal is to explain these findings, to articulate the connections between the variables that are studied, and to thereby predict and more completely understand our social worlds.
Distinguish between applied research and basic research and describe how basic research and applied research are connected.
Basic research: Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypothesis based on a theory.
Applied research: Research whose goal is to make applications to the world and contribute to the solution of social problems.
Some researchers switch back and forth between the two. Some studies test a theory and examine a real world phenomenon simultaneously. There is nothing so practical as a good theory.
Define conceptual variables and operational definitions. How are they related? Give an example of a conceptual variable and its operational definition.
Conceptual variables: When a researcher first develops a hypothesis, the variables typically are in an abstract, general form. These are conceptual variables. Examples include; prejudice, conformitity, attraction, love, group pressure, and social anxiety.
Operational definitions: The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable.
They are related in that conceptual variables must be defined through operational definitions. One such example, would be measuring the impact of blood alchohol level (operational definition of 0.10) toward that of aggression (conceptual variable.)
Summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using self-reports and observations to measure variables.
Self report:
- Advantages: Give access to an individuals beliefs and perceptions.
- Disadvantages: The wording of the questions may give way to different results, They often ask people to report on thoughts and feelings from the past - memory is prone to error.
Observations:
- Advantages: They avoid our sometimes faulty recollections and distorted interpretations of our own behavior.
- Disadvantages: If individuals known they are being observed, their behaviors, may be biased by the desire to present themselves in favourable light.
Define construct validity. Why is it necessary to establish construct validity in research?
Construct validity: The extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate.
It is neceesarry to establish constructu validity so you are measuring the variables that the experiment is designed to measure, and the minpulations in the experiment are manipulating the variables they are designed to manipulate.
Define interrater reliability. Why is it necessary to have interrater reliability in the measurement of variables?
Interrater reliability: The degree with which different observers agree on their observations.
When different observers agree, the data can be trusted.
What is the purpose of descriptive research? Describe the methods used to conduct descriptive research.
The purpose of descriptive research is to describe people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Observational studies: A research method where researchers observe and record events or behaviors without intervening or manipulating the subjects, aiming to identify relationships between variables. (Eg. Is a basketball player more likely to miss a free throw shot due to a bad call from a referee if falsely awarded the free throw shot?)
Archival studies: Examining existing records of past events and behaviors, such as newspaper articles, medical records, tweets or retweets on twitter, sports statistics, profiles on dating apps, crime statistics, and hits on a website.
Surveys: A research method whre researchers gather infomration about subjects based on information reported by the partiicpants in the survey.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using observation, archival records, and surveys to conduct research?
Observational studies:
1. Advantages: Used when RCT’s are unethical or impractical, allowing researchers to explore questions that cannot be addressed through intervention, Allow researchers to observe behavior in natural pheonoma, can be more cost effective than RCT’s.
2. Disadvantages: Susceptible to various biases, including selection bias, information bias, and confounding bias. Can be challenging to determine whether observed associations are causal or due to other factors. Researchers perceptions and expecations can indluence their interpretation of observation, leading to subjective or innacurate results. Very time consuming. Limited control over the variables that can be manipualted in the research design.
Archival records:
1. Advantages: Can be significantly cheaper than collecting new data, utilizing existing records. Allows researcher to examine trends and patterns over extended periods. Reduces researcher bias. Can provide large data sample sets.
2. Disadvantages: No control over how to original data was collected or what information was included. May reflect researchers bias leading to skewed results. Data degradation; over time archival material can degrade or become innaccessible. Finding, accessing, and analyzing archival materials can be time consuming, requiring significant effort and expertise.
Surveys:
1. Advantages: Can reach a large number of people quickly, can be administered via various methods, can encourage more honest and unbiased answers due to anonymity, can gather data quickly and efficiently.
2. Disadvantages: Low response rates, survey fatigue, poorly designed questions, often lack the ability to probe for deeper insights or clarify responses, respondents may provide socially desirable or innacurate responses.
Define random sampling. Why is it important to use random sampling in designing surveys?
Random sampling: A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study.
So there is a proportionate study of respondents to the data desired to be collected. For the purpose of accurate results.
What is the purpose of correlational research? List the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research.
Correlational research: Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher.
Advantages: Can be less expensive and more ethical than experimental research, and it doesn’t require manipulating variables or controlled environments. Can help identify potential causal relationships which can the be further investigated through experimental studies. Can identify the strength and relationship between two studies.
Disadvantages: Cannot establish cause and effect relationships, third variable problem - which can influence the variables in the investigation, and can lead to innacurate interprations, cna provide statistical relationship between two variables but not the reason for the relationships. Cannot be used to determine if one variable causes another variable. Relies on the past to determine relationships, so it cannot be reliable source of future predictions.
What does correlation is not causation mean?
In correlational research correlation doesn’t mean causation. Meaning that there can be a strong correlation between the variables, however, this may not be the cause of relationship between the variables without doing further RCT’s. It cannot determine a cause and effect relationship.
What is the purpose of experimental research? List the characteristics of an experiment.
The purpose of experimental research is to determine cause and effect relationships between two variables.
Two essential characteristics:
1. The researcher has control over the experimental procedures, manipulating the variables of interest while ensuring uniformity elsewhere.
2. Participants are randomly assigned to different manipulations included in the experiment.
Differentiate between random sampling and random assignment.
Random sampling concenrs how individuals are selected to be in a study.
Random assignment concerns not who is selected to be in the study but rather how participants in the study are assigned to different conditions.
Distinguish between independent variables and dependent variables in experimental research.
Independent variables: In an experiment, a factor that exerimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable.
Dependent variable: In an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable.
Define subject variable and give an example.
Subject variables: A variable that characterizes preexisting difference among the participants in a study.
Eg) Gender identitiy, ethnicity, race, income, and education.
Define internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity: The degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variable.
Extrernal validity: The degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people in other situations.
What is a meta-analysis?
A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.
Describe the measures that researchers in social psychology must take to protect the welfare of human participants in their research.
Informed consent: An individuals deliberate, voluntary decision to partiicpate in research, based on teh researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation.
Debriefing: A disclosure, made to participants after researhc procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants involvement.
What are the competing arguments for and against science as value free?
Although many people hold science to a standard of compltee objectivity, science can probably never be completely unbiased and objective because it is a human enterprise.
Scientists choose what to study and how to study it; their choices are affected by personal values as well as by professional rewards.
Some think that values should fuel scientific research and that scientists would be not only naive but also irresponsible to try to keep values out of the picture.
