Chapter 2 Flashcards
Case study
-Deep, rich investigation of a single case (one participant, small group)
-Used for rare phenomena (e.g. brain injury, cults, diesease, etc.)
-Pros: real-life observation, rich description
-Cons: limited generalizability
Correlational Research
-Observational or survey methodology
-Pros: Easy to get large samples, can ask about wider variety of events than can be manipulated in a lab, easier to ensure generalizability
-Cons: Self-report biases, unknown third variables, etc.)
Correlation
An expression of the relationship between 2 variables
-Positive: Temperature and popsicle consumption
Negative: Temperature and hot coco consumption
Magnitude
-The size of intensity of a phenomena
-Can vary from 1 to -1
Absolute Magnitude
The STRENGTH of a correlational relationship, a larger number=stronger relationship
-E.g. r=87 is stronger than r=+23
Why can’t correlation tell us about causation?
-Only shows the relationship between two variables, not a causal relationship
-Possible third variables
Experiment/Experimental research
Manipulation of one set of variables to assess the effects on other variables
-Pros: Can draw causal inferences
Independent Variable
-Hypothesized variable, what’s being manipulated, must be operationalized/specified, and different levels of it must be randomly assigned
Dependent Variable
-The result of the manipulation of IV
Good research
-Avoids confounds
-Avoids bias
-Feels psychologically “real”
-Treats participants ethically
Confound
-Any alternative variable that covaries with the experimental condition that could explain differences between experimental groups
-Ex. Zendaya being morning experimenter and Dave Chapelle was the evening experimenter. Ppl will be more receptive to Zendaya than Dave
How to avoid confounds
-Rigid Control: Every participant’s experience is controlled/identical except for the manipulation
-Randomly vary as many “nonessentials” as possible so any differences presumable average out
Scientific Method
- Theory
- Hypothesis
- Research
4 Research either supports or refutes the theory - You either discard or revise the theory OR strengthen the theory
Occam’s razor
Theory developed by William of Occam
-The simpler the theory, the better
Operational Definition/Operationalize
-Definitions that qualify (describe) and quantify (measure) variables so that they can be understood objectively
Why might studies not replicate?
-False positive: Produces a seemingly trustworthy result by CHANCE
-Questionable research practices (small, samples, HARKing, P-hacking, Underreporting null effects)
HARKing
-Hypothesizing after results are known
P-hacking
Running statistical tests over and over with different variations until you get a trustworthy result
Best practices for psychological science
-Preregistration
-Meta-Analysis: A type of study that is an analysis of multiple analyses, studies something that’s already been conducted
Descriptive research
Observing behavior to DESCRIBE that behavior objectively and systematically
Positive correlation
When both variables increase or decrease together
Negative correlation
The variables move in opposite directions
Correlation coefficient
A descriptive statistic that provides a numerical value between +1.0 and -1.0 that indicates the strength of the relationships between two variables
Confidentiality
Personal identifying information about participants can’t be shared with others
Annonymity
The researchers don’t collect personal, identifying information in the first place
Informed consent
informing particpants about the risks and benefits of participating in a study
Beneficience
The obligation of researchers to weigh the potential benefits of a study against its potential risks
Mundane realism
The lab tasks/decorations mirror real-world environment in hopes of capturing more natural behavior
Psychological realism
The tasks themselves capture the psychological process in a controllable setting
-More important than mundane realism
(Eg. the chocolate/radish test)
Internal validity
The degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not to confounds.
External validity
The degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations.
Construct validity
The extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure
Gene
-segments of DNA that provides instructions for building polypeptides/proteins
-unit of heredity
-All humans have 99% of the same DNA, but the few differences in sequencing matter
Genotype
-The actual genetic constitution of the DNA sequence itself
-The same genotype can be expressed in different phenotypes
Phenotype
observable expression of characteristics, result from genes and environment
-The same phenotype can result from different genotypes (E.g. tonguerolling)
Evocative/Reactive interaction
When a HERITABLE feature changes how the environment RESPONDS to you
Active Interaction
When genes make certain environments appealing, and those environments bring out MORE of that genetic factor to begin with
Niches
Environments and genetics working in concert to support a trait
Experimentation aversion
The tendency to prefer untested treatments or conditions over participating in a randomized study to one or the other treatment or condition
Central tendency
-Mean
-Median
-Mode
Standard deviation
How spread out the numbers are, how far each value is from the mean
Hormone
Chemicals released from the endocrine system, influence physical AND psychological states
Oxytocin
-“Bonding” hormone
-Released during labor
-If it’s blocked, some maternal mammals are more likely to reject their infants
-BUT not required for most mammals
-Down regulates cortisol
-Time with infant evokes oxytocin release in any bonded caregiver
-Infants, mates, friends and pets
Cortisol
-Stress hormone released by adrenal glands
-Down regulates dopamine
-Released situationally in times of stress
-Evaluative stress (fear of ppl judging you)
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Microbiome
-Trillions of organisms living on and in us
-Bacterial genome as powerful as human genome in predicting some phenotypes
-Gut bacteria influence digestion, obesity, anxiety, and mood
Peripheral Nervous System
-Somatic (info to and from muscles, joints, skin)
-Autonomic (internal organs and glands)
Autonomic nervous system
-Sympathetic: “Fight of flight,” prepares body for action
High Heart rate, vasoconstriction, high blood sugar
-Parasympathetic: “Rest and digest,” returns body to resting state
-low heart rate, vasodilation, vagus nerve connecting the gut to brain and transmit relax responses
