Chapter 2 Flashcards
What does thinking sociologically involve?
Looking for patterns in how people interact and behave in relation to others.
How is sociology different from other social sciences?
Sociology goes beyond mere documentation to explain social events through broader factors.
What do sociologists aim to explain?
Events in the social world based on influences beyond individual actions.
What is the sociological paradox?
The challenge of observing and understanding social behaviors that can’t be directly observed.
How does sociological theory help us?
It identifies historical and societal forces influencing daily life.
What does sociological theory provide for studying behavior?
It offers questions to ask and a specialized language (metalanguage).
Who is Auguste Comte?
One of the first to use the term “sociology.”
He grew up during a turbulent period in French history with significant government and social changes.
Q: What did Augusten Comte seek to understand?
He aimed to prevent societal upheaval by understanding social dynamics.
Stasis (social stability) and kinesis (social change)
Emile Durkheim’s Normative
What were the two kinds of social phenomena or social facts:
Normal and Pathological
Emile Durkheim’s Normative
“Normal”
Those that are “normal,” average, typical, or expected things that happen in a society
Emily Durkheim’s Normative
“Pathological”
Those that are “pathological,” pointing us towards examining the not- normal, atypical, and un expected things
What is Level of Analysis
our ability to be able to see different practices, values, and social forces at work in the same situation
What do levels of analysis provide in sociology?
They give us a way to focus on specific aspects of a social situation, linked to the frame of reference for our observations.
Level of Analysis: Microsociology
Studies about individuals and their patterns
Level of Analysis: Mesosociology
Middle level analysis of group
Level of Analysis: Macrosociology
“Big picture” of society and institutions
What unique perspective does Willy Martinussen offer on sociological explanations?
Willy Martinussen has provided one of the clearest ways of thinking about the unique nature of sociological explanations
Martinussen (2017) organizes the variety of modes of sociological explanation in
terms of two dimensions:
a) the level of analysis they focus on
b) the complexity of the social phenomenon being analyzed and whether or not the explanation emphasizes structural aspects of the situation or the agency the actors have within the situation
Willy Martinussen (1938- )
- Systems explanations:
how the internal dynamics and relations of social systems impact on sociological phenomena;
Willy Martinussen (1938- )
- Communities explanations:
the relations and interactions between individuals acting in a
particular position in a social formation;
Willy Martinussen (1938- )
- Opportunities explanations:
the ways in which groups of individuals assess and access resources, as well as what they define as “a resource”
Willy Martinussen (1938- )
- Meaningful behaviours:
the explanatory factor in the collection of individual actions and the motives behind those actions.
Type of Explanation: system
Level of Analysis:Macro system and institution
Structure-Focused: Functional explanation
Action- or Intention-Focused: Linkage explanations
How we think of the social: Social world
Type of Explanation: Communities
Level of Analysis: Meso-group level
Structure-Focused: Social integration explanation
Action- or Intention-Focused: Joint/collective action explanation
How we think of “the social”: Social world
Type of Explanation: Opportunities
Level of Analysis: Meso/micro—how individuals deal with social formation
Structure-Focused: Social context explanation
Action- or Intention-Focused: Situation logic explanation
Type of Explanation: Meaningful behaviour
Level of Analysis: Micro—how individuals operate
Structure-Focused: Adjustment explanation
Action- or Intention-Focused: Choice explanation
How we think of “the social”: Sum total of individuals
Paradigm
a particular philosophical or theoretical way of thinking about the world
Thomas Kuhn core component of a paradigm
• what is to be observed;
• the kinds of questions to be asked;
• how these questions should be structured;
• what predictions would be made by these paradigms;
• how to interpret the results of these investigations
What analogy does Structural Functionalism use to describe society?
An organic or biological analogy, comparing society to a living organism.
What does Structural Functionalism identify and describe?
It identifies various structures of society (e.g., family) and describes the functions they perform to maintain the social system and produce social cohesion.
What is the primary focus of Structural Functionalism?
It focuses on explaining social forms and their contributions to social cohesion and reproduction, rather than on conflict and social change.
Structural Functionalist: Auguste Comte (1798–1857, French)
Key contributions
Aims to develop a science of society that could be used for social reconstruction.
Structural Functionalist: Herbert Spencer (1820–1903, British)
Key contributions
Social evolutionist who seeks to apply Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human societies; coins the term “survival of the fittest.”
Structural Functionalist: Émile Durkheim (1858–1917, French)
Key contributions
Among the first to consider society scientifically in terms of “social facts”; sees the relationship between economy, social solidarity, and ideas of morality.
Structural Functionalist: Talcott Parsons (1902–1979, American)
Key contributions
Works towards a systematic and generalizable theory of social systems based on how social structures constrain social actions.
Structural Functionalist: Talcott Parsons (1902–1979, American)
Key contributions
Works towards a systematic and generalizable theory of social systems based on how social structures constrain social actions.
Structural Functionalist: Robert Merton (1910–2003, American)
Key contributions
Identifies three types of functions (manifest, latent, and latent dysfunction), which helps to develop his theory of anomie and bridges functionalist and conflict paradigms.
What does Symbolic Interactionism focus on?
The meaning or “symbolism” of daily social interactions and how these interactions produce or reproduce social order.
Who is Max Weber in the context of sociology?
One of the first sociologists to examine how actions relate to social institutions.
What concept did Weber introduce for understanding behavior?
Verstehen, or “deep understanding,” which requires interpretive analysis and a mental distancing approach to study subjective phenomena.
What concept did Weber introduce for understanding behavior?
Verstehen, or “deep understanding,” which requires interpretive analysis and a mental distancing approach to study subjective phenomena.
Symbolic-Interactionist: Max Weber (1864–1920, German)
Key contributions
Identified the ways in which meaning and belief systems could be translated into action and ultimately social institutions.
Symbolic-Interactionist: George Herbert Mead (1863– 1931, American)
Key contributions
Understood how the self is constructed through learning to anticipate how we will be viewed through personal exchanges with others.
Symbolic-Interactionist: Herbert Blumer (1900–1987, American)
Key contributions
Devised the term “symbolic interaction” to examine the role of meaning in how people relate to things and others; explored how sociologists developed and studied concepts.
Symbolic-Interactionist: W.I. Thomas (1863–1947, American)
Key contributions
Developed with Dorothy Swaine Thomas (the first woman president of the American Sociological Association) the Thomas theorem that “if men [sic] define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”
Symbolic-Interactionist: Erving Goffman (1922–1982, American)
Key contributions
Developed the dramaturgical perspective, understanding social interactions as if in a dramatic play; gave us the idea of the “total institution.”
Conflict-oriented Paradigms
the idea that conflict exists in all large societies due to class division and is the motor of major socio-historical change
Conflict theory is based on the four C’s
Conflict: exists in all large societies
Class: has existed in every society
Contestation: functions can be contested by asking “What group does this function best serve?”
Change: society either will or should be changed
What is Intersectionality in social research?
A multi-factor approach that recognizes how different forms of inequality operate layer upon layer, distributing advantages and discrimination differently among groups.
How do social conflicts interact in Intersectionality?
Social conflicts can overlap or become exaggerated as they interact, creating compounded effects.
Give an example of Intersectionality in the workplace.
Gender inequalities in income are intersected by racial classifications; for example, while women may earn 90% of what men earn, racialized women earn even less compared to other women.
What tension exists in the discipline of sociology?
A struggle between those aiming to build a science of society and those seeking to effect social change.
Sociology as a discipline can also be categorized based on the audience for whom the work is intended:
– Professional sociology
– Critical sociology
– Policy sociology
– Public sociology
What is Professional Sociology?
Research designed to generate highly specific information aimed at addressing particular problems or intellectual questions.
What characterizes the writing in Professional Sociology?
It is written in highly technical and specialized language.
Who is the primary audience for Professional Sociology?
Academic and professional readers, including sociology departments, scholarly journals, professional associations, and conferences.
What is Critical Sociology often referred to as?
The “conscience of professional sociology.”
What is the main aim of Critical Sociology?
To ensure that professional sociologists do not become lost in esoteric debates and stay focused on the goals of sociological inquiry.
What is a key goal of Critical Sociology?
To bring about meaningful social change.
Who is the primary audience for Critical Sociology?
Academic and professional readers.
What is Policy Sociology?
A type of sociology that generates sociological data to inform the development of social policies, laws, rules, or plans.
What are the three main areas served by Policy Sociology?
Education, health, and social welfare (though not limited to these areas).
Who is the primary audience for Policy Sociology?
Governments and corporations.
What is the role of Public Sociology?
To make sociology accessible to the public using jargon-free language.
Who is the primary audience for Public Sociology?
Those outside of the discipline and the political establishment.
