Chapter 2

Question 1

single-factor explanation

Answer 1

To state that a genetic defect or a single traumatic experience causes a mental disorder is to accept a single-factor explanation, which attempts to trace the origins of a particular disorder to one factor. For example, a single-factor explanation of social anxiety may be that it runs in families.

Question 1

Interactionist explanations

Answer 1

behaviour is the product
of the interaction of a variety of factors, generally makes
more satisfactory theories in describing mental disorders.

Question 2

scientific theories are judged to be valuable not because they describe the enduring truth about an issue,
but rather because they embody three essential features:

Answer 2

1. They integrate most of what is currently known about the phenomena in the simplest way possible
   (parsimony);
2. They make testable predictions about aspects of the phenomena that were not previously thought of; and
3. They make it possible to specify what evidence would
   deny the theory

Question 3

null hypothesis

Answer 3

The null hypothesis essentially
proposes that the prediction made from the theory is false.

Let us look at a simple example. Suppose we claim that low
self-esteem causes and maintains depression. A prediction from this claim would be that patients suffering from depression should have lower self-esteem than do non-depressed
patients. If we compare these two groups of patients and
find that the depressed group scores significantly lower
than does the non-depressed group, we may have offered
some support for the theory, but we have not proved it to be
true: some other, as yet unknown, factor may produce both
depression and low self-esteem. However, these results allow
us to reject the null hypothesis, which, in this case, says there
are no differences in self-esteem between the depressed and
non-depressed groups.

Question 4

etiology

Answer 4

that is, the causes or origins

Question 5

The general aims of theories about mental disorders are to

Answer 5

(1) explain the etiology (that is, the causes or origins) of
the problem behaviour
(2) identify the factors that maintain the behaviour
(3) predict the course of the disorder
(4) design effective treatments

Question 6

primary proposed causes of mental disorders

Answer 6

1. biological
2. psychodynamic
3. behavioural or cognitive-behavioural theories
4. cognitive theories examining dysfunctional thoughts or beliefs
5. humanistic or existential theories that examine interpersonal processes
6. socio-cultural influences

Question 7

Neurotransmitters

Answer 7

Neurotransmitters are the chemical substances that carry the messages from one neuron to the next in the complex pathways of nervous activity within the brain

Question 8

abnormal behaviour can result from disturbances in neurotransmitter systems in various ways:

Answer 8

(1) there may be too much or too little of the neurotransmitter produced or released into the synapse

(2) there may be too few or too many
receptors on the dendrites

(3) there may be an excess or a deficit in the amount of the transmitter-deactivating substance in the synapse

(4) the reuptake process may be too rapid or too slow.

Question 9

brain plasticity

Answer 9

capacity of the brain to reorganize its circuitry

• Brain plasticity can be influenced
  by a number of experiences that occur pre- and postnatally through hormones, diet, aging, stress, disease, and maturation

Question 10

autonomic nervous system

Answer 10

has two parts:
- the sympathetic nervous system - During stress, or when a person
feels threatened, the sympathetic nervous system readies
the body for action (fight or flight)
- the parasympathetic nervous system - the parasympathetic nervous system shuts down digestive processes, since energy given to
this function would be wasted in a time of emergency.

Question 11

gene–environment (genotype environment) interaction

Answer 11

It appears as though genes may influence behaviours that contribute to environmental stressors, which,
in turn, increase the risk of psychopathology.

Question 12

concordance

Answer 12

a person with a disorder is identified (called the index case or proband) and other people (family or nonfamily members) are examined to see if there is a match for the disorder

• When the problem that characterizes the index case also occurs in the comparison person, the two are said
  to be concordant (or to display concordance for the problem). The degree of concordance is thought to reveal the influence of genetics

Question 13

genetic linkage studies

Answer 13

In genetic linkage studies, researchers examine families that have a high incidence of a particular psychiatric disorder. Within these extended families, researchers look for the presence of particular traits (called
genetic markers) that can be linked to the occurrence of the disorder

Question 14

Molecular biology

Answer 14

Researchers in molecular biology have been able to compare specific DNA segments and identify the genes that
determine individual characteristics. Based on the human genome project, researchers have been able to pinpoint the defective genes that contribute to various medical and psychological disorders

• In most of these cases, multiple gene defects appear to interact with environmental factors to produce
  the disorder

Question 15

psychodynamic school of thought

Answer 15

Founded by Freud

• Psychodynamic theories claim that unconscious forces of which
  the person is unaware control behaviour. In this sense, psychodynamic theories, like biological theories, see the person as having little control over his or her actions. However, psychodynamic theorists consider the origins of unconscious
  controls to reside in the individual’s personal experience

Question 16

catharsis

Answer 16

Discharging the emotional responses attached to these unconscious memories, by identifying the original traumatic experiences during hypnosis

Question 17

levels of consciousness by Freud

Answer 17

the conscious - which contains information of which we
are currently aware

the preconscious - which holds information not presently within our awareness but that can readily be
brought into awareness

the unconscious - which, according to Freud, contains the majority of our memories and drives that, unfortunately, can only be raised to awareness with great difficulty and typically only in response to particular
techniques (that is, by psychoanalytic procedures)

Question 18

id

Answer 18

structure present at birth and it contains, or represents, the biological or instinctual drives. These
drives demand instant gratification without concern for the
consequences either to the self or to others. In this sense, the id acts according to what Freud called the pleasure principle

Question 19

ego

Answer 19

ego develops to curb the desires of the id so that the individual does not suffer any unpleasant consequences. There
is no concern here for what is right or wrong, but only for
the avoidance of pain or discomfort and the maximization of
unpunished pleasure. As the individual learns what expressions of desires are practical and possible, the ego comes to
be governed by the reality principle. Early in life, then, there is
a constant clash between the id and the ego, which is reduced
over time so long as the ego develops normally

Question 20

superego

Answer 20

The superego is the internalization of the moral standards of society inculcated by the child’s parents. The operating guide of the superego is the moral principle, and it serves as the person’s conscience by monitoring the ego. The ego, therefore, attempts to satisfy the id while not offending the principles of the superego. The more strongly developed the ego, the better able it is to handle these often opposing pressures

Question 21

Psychosexual stages of development

Answer 21

phallic stage - has received the greatest attention from psychoanalysts. In this stage, boys are presumed to
develop sexual desires for their mother and to see their father as a competitor for their mother’s love. This is described as the Oedipal complex.
Similarly, girls are thought to desire their father—not to win their father’s love, but rather, by seducing him, to
gain what they truly desire: a penis. In girls, this desire for the father is called the Electra complex

Question 22

summary of psychosexual stages of development

Answer 22

Oral - Birth - 18 months - focus on oral activities (eg. eating and sucking)

Anal - 18 months - 3 years - Toilet training - child may cooperate or resist by soiling or withholding

phallic - 3 - 6 years - Oedipal or Electra complex

Latency - 6 - 12 years - consolidation of behavioural skills and attitudes - relatively quiescent stage

Genital - adolescence to death - achievement of personal and sexual maturity

Question 23

defence mechanisms

Answer 23

The ego uses defence mechanisms to
allow the expression of libidinal desires in a distorted or symbolic form. The id, however, does its best to break through these defences, so that psychic energy is used up in this almost constant conflict between the ego and the id. The weaker the ego (that is, the less resolved the individual’s psychosexual stages), the greater the conflict and, thereby, the greater the exhaustion
of psychic energy

Question 24

repression

Answer 24

Burying in the unconscious the unacceptable impulses of the id

eg. Inability to recall being
sexually abused as a
child

Question 25

regression

Answer 25

Employing behaviours typical of an earlier stage of development

• Petulance or tantrums in response to frustration

Question 26

projection

Answer 26

Attributing one’s own desires to others

eg. Someone who cheats on an exam, or is tempted to cheat, claiming everyone cheats

Question 27

intellectualisation

Answer 27

Hiding the real issues behind a screen of abstract analyses

eg. A criminal appealing his conviction, despite admitting guilt, on the grounds of improper trial procedures

Question 28

Denial

Answer 28

Refusal to acknowledge an unpleasant reality

eg. A person, told she has two months to live, planning a holiday in a year’s time

Question 29

Displacement

Answer 29

The transfer of feelings from one person to another, less threatening
person

A person humiliated by her employer directing her anger toward her
spouse

Question 30

Reaction formation

Answer 30

Repressing unacceptable desires by expressing the opposite viewpoint

• A man who has strong sexual desires toward most women berating
  people who are promiscuous

Question 31

Sublimation

Answer 31

Transformation of sexual or aggressive energy into some more acceptable
activity

• Freud thought that artists who painted nudes were sublimating their sexual desires

Question 32

classical conditioning

Answer 32

all (or almost all) human behaviour, including abnormal behaviour, was learned

classical conditioning was the basis for this

What is learned in classical conditioning, then, is the transfer of a response (that is, the UCR or its practical replication, the CR) from
one stimulus (UCS) to another (CS). This process is called stimulus–stimulus learning

• Watson’s most famous application of this type of analysis was to the acquisition of phobias

Question 33

two-factor theory

Answer 33

Mowrer suggested that two types of learning take place in the acquisition and maintenance of phobias

(1) classical conditioning establishes the aversive response to a previously
neutral stimulus (the CS)
(2) thereafter, the organism
avoids the CS in order to prevent feeling afraid.

Question 34

operant conditioning

Answer 34

In Skinner’s operant conditioning, the consequences of behaviour are important. All actions are followed by consequences of one kind or another. Some consequences encourage the
repetition of the behaviour that produces them, whereas other
consequences result in the opposite effect

Question 35

reinforcement

Answer 35

When behaviour increases in frequency as a result of consistent consequences,
reinforcement is said to occur

• Some behaviours lead to pleasant consequences or rewards, and the behaviour increases; this is called positive reinforcement.
• Other behaviours (for example, taking an aspirin) result in a reduction of distress (that is, the headache goes away); this is called negative reinforcement

Question 36

punishment

Answer 36

when a behaviour decreases
in frequency as a result of its consequences, this is described
as punishment

• When a behaviour is reduced by
  the consequent occurrence of an unpleasant experience, it is
  called positive punishment
• when the behaviour is reduced
  following the removal of something desirable, negative punishment is said to have occurred

Question 37

social learning theory

Answer 37

social learning theory suggested
that, although classical and operant conditioning experiences are important, the majority of these experiences occur within a social context and are primarily acquired vicariously—that is, by observation of others rather than by direct personal experience

eg. bo bo doll experiment

Question 38

cognitive-behavioural theory

Answer 38

the view that both thinking and behaviour are learned and, therefore, can be changed. This approach assumes that the way in which
people view the world, including their beliefs and attitudes toward the world, themselves, and others, arises out of their experience and that these patterns of thinking and perceiving are maintained by consequences in the same way that overt behaviour is maintained.

Question 39

all cognitive theories share three principles

Answer 39

1. thinking effects emotion and behaviour
   2, thoughts can be monitored and changed
2. by altering one’s thoughts, a person will experience desired behavioural and emotional change

Question 40

rational-emotive behaviour therapy

Answer 40

when faced with unfavourable life circumstances, human beings tend to make themselves feel frustrated, disappointed, and miserable; and behave in self-defeating ways,
mainly because they construct irrational beliefs about themselves and their situations.

Question 41

Beck’s cognitive model - emotions and behaviours are heavily influenced by individual perceptions or cognitive appraisals of events

Answer 41

Three main levels of cognition are
emphasized in this theory:
(1) schemas
(2) information processing and intermediate beliefs (including dysfunctional rules, assumptions, and attitudes)
3) automatic thoughts

Question 42

Schemas

Answer 42

refer to internal representations of stored information and experiences. Schemas are used to organize new information in a meaningful way and help to determine how we perceive and understand what goes on around us

Question 43

early maladaptive schemas

Answer 43

EMSs are broad, pervasive themes or
patterns that are composed of memories, emotions, cognitions, and bodily sensations regarding the self and one’s relationships with others

According to Beck, the development and organization of a maladaptive self-schema occurs during early childhood,
but the schema does not become active until it is triggered by negative life events

Question 44

content-specificity

Answer 44

Different types of beliefs are considered to be related to different kinds of abnormal behaviour

• eg. Individuals who are depressed are
  theorized to have negative automatic thoughts that focus on themes of personal loss, deprivation, and failure

Question 45

automatic thoughts

Answer 45

the frequent thoughts that pop into our minds and that are not accompanied by
conscious appraisal

• Automatic thoughts are considered to be cognitive byproducts because they stem directly from an individual’s core beliefs, or schemas, in interaction with the environment

Question 46

person-centred theory of personality

Answer 46

the person to be of central importance in understanding behaviour. According to Rogers, self-fulfillment is achieved by accepting oneself, being honest in all interactions, trusting experience (which he said is the highest authority), and relying on oneself for personal
evaluations. People who can do so will be able to accept others for who they are, thus encouraging both themselves and others to be more honest, and such honesty will help accumulate
experiences that will lead them to realize their potential.

Question 47

self-actualization

Answer 47

Maslow described a hierarchy of needs that, when fully satisfied, result in the actualization of the person’s potential.

1. Self-actualisation needs
2. Esteem needs
3. Belongingness needs
4. Safety needs
5. Physiological needs

Question 48

existentialists

Answer 48

Existentialists see the individual’s
awareness of his or her own existence as a critical feature of human functioning. This awareness brings with it the realization that we could, and obviously eventually will, cease to exist.

• Existentialists also stress our responsibility for our choices and, therefore, for our actions. We make free choices and must necessarily take responsibility for them.

Question 49

public stigma

Answer 49

refers to the “perception held by a group or society . . . that a person who
seeks psychological treatment is undesirable or socially unacceptable

Question 50

self-stigma

Answer 50

“reduction of an individual’s self-esteem or self-worth caused by the individual self-labeling herself or himself as someone who is socially unacceptable”

Question 51

importance of reducing mental health stigma

Answer 51

The importance of reducing mental health stigma and increasing the use of mental health services in Canada is
beginning to be realized

Question 52

social support

Answer 52

There is clear evidence that social support from close others is a significant factor in preventing or
reducing the intensity of psychological problems, and that the absence of such support is a factor in the causal chain leading to dysfunction

Question 53

influence of social media on perceived social support and mental wellbeing

Answer 53

(1) social media served as a unique form of social support for individuals with low levels of in-person social support. Conversely, for individuals who already had high levels of in-person
social support, the support provided by social media was largely redundant

(2) online social support and in-person
social support were each uniquely negatively associated with depressive thoughts, suggesting that each has incremental utility over and above the other. Importantly, these correlations were larger for in-person social support compared to online, which suggests that in-person support may be a more
influential form of support

(3) the benefits attained
from online and in-person social support outweigh some of the negative influences of peer victimization

• strategic use of social media in addition to in-person social relations can be beneficial in improving social support systems

Question 54

Systems theory

Answer 54

Systems theory proposes that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, whereas reductionism says that the whole is the sum of its parts. A systems theory approach has had profound influences on many areas of science, including biology, engineering, and computer science

• Not only does systems theory suggest that causation is the result of multiple factors interacting, and that causation
  is a bidirectional process, it also points out that the same end result can arise from one of many possible causes.

Question 55

diathesis-stress perspective

Answer 55

a predisposition to developing a disorder (the diathesis) interacting with
the experience of stress causes mental disorders

• According to this view, this interaction underlies the onset of all disorders, although either the predisposition or the stress may be more important in a particular disorder, or in a particular
  person.

Question 56

biopsychosocial model

Answer 56

the biopsychosocial model declares that disorders cannot be understood as
resulting from the influence of one factor, be it biological, psychological, or social. Each of these factors must be taken into account, again with differing emphases depending on the disorder in question