Chapter 2 Flashcards
single-factor explanation
To state that a genetic defect or a single traumatic experience causes a mental disorder is to accept a single-factor explanation, which attempts to trace the origins of a particular disorder to one factor. For example, a single-factor explanation of social anxiety may be that it runs in families.
Interactionist explanations
behaviour is the product
of the interaction of a variety of factors, generally makes
more satisfactory theories in describing mental disorders.
scientific theories are judged to be valuable not because they describe the enduring truth about an issue,
but rather because they embody three essential features:
- They integrate most of what is currently known about the phenomena in the simplest way possible
(parsimony); - They make testable predictions about aspects of the phenomena that were not previously thought of; and
- They make it possible to specify what evidence would
deny the theory
null hypothesis
The null hypothesis essentially
proposes that the prediction made from the theory is false.
Let us look at a simple example. Suppose we claim that low
self-esteem causes and maintains depression. A prediction from this claim would be that patients suffering from depression should have lower self-esteem than do non-depressed
patients. If we compare these two groups of patients and
find that the depressed group scores significantly lower
than does the non-depressed group, we may have offered
some support for the theory, but we have not proved it to be
true: some other, as yet unknown, factor may produce both
depression and low self-esteem. However, these results allow
us to reject the null hypothesis, which, in this case, says there
are no differences in self-esteem between the depressed and
non-depressed groups.
etiology
that is, the causes or origins
The general aims of theories about mental disorders are to
(1) explain the etiology (that is, the causes or origins) of
the problem behaviour
(2) identify the factors that maintain the behaviour
(3) predict the course of the disorder
(4) design effective treatments
primary proposed causes of mental disorders
- biological
- psychodynamic
- behavioural or cognitive-behavioural theories
- cognitive theories examining dysfunctional thoughts or beliefs
- humanistic or existential theories that examine interpersonal processes
- socio-cultural influences
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are the chemical substances that carry the messages from one neuron to the next in the complex pathways of nervous activity within the brain
abnormal behaviour can result from disturbances in neurotransmitter systems in various ways:
(1) there may be too much or too little of the neurotransmitter produced or released into the synapse
(2) there may be too few or too many
receptors on the dendrites
(3) there may be an excess or a deficit in the amount of the transmitter-deactivating substance in the synapse
(4) the reuptake process may be too rapid or too slow.
brain plasticity
capacity of the brain to reorganize its circuitry
- Brain plasticity can be influenced
by a number of experiences that occur pre- and postnatally through hormones, diet, aging, stress, disease, and maturation
autonomic nervous system
has two parts:
- the sympathetic nervous system - During stress, or when a person
feels threatened, the sympathetic nervous system readies
the body for action (fight or flight)
- the parasympathetic nervous system - the parasympathetic nervous system shuts down digestive processes, since energy given to
this function would be wasted in a time of emergency.
gene–environment (genotype environment) interaction
It appears as though genes may influence behaviours that contribute to environmental stressors, which,
in turn, increase the risk of psychopathology.
concordance
a person with a disorder is identified (called the index case or proband) and other people (family or nonfamily members) are examined to see if there is a match for the disorder
- When the problem that characterizes the index case also occurs in the comparison person, the two are said
to be concordant (or to display concordance for the problem). The degree of concordance is thought to reveal the influence of genetics
genetic linkage studies
In genetic linkage studies, researchers examine families that have a high incidence of a particular psychiatric disorder. Within these extended families, researchers look for the presence of particular traits (called
genetic markers) that can be linked to the occurrence of the disorder
Molecular biology
Researchers in molecular biology have been able to compare specific DNA segments and identify the genes that
determine individual characteristics. Based on the human genome project, researchers have been able to pinpoint the defective genes that contribute to various medical and psychological disorders
- In most of these cases, multiple gene defects appear to interact with environmental factors to produce
the disorder
psychodynamic school of thought
Founded by Freud
- Psychodynamic theories claim that unconscious forces of which
the person is unaware control behaviour. In this sense, psychodynamic theories, like biological theories, see the person as having little control over his or her actions. However, psychodynamic theorists consider the origins of unconscious
controls to reside in the individual’s personal experience
catharsis
Discharging the emotional responses attached to these unconscious memories, by identifying the original traumatic experiences during hypnosis
levels of consciousness by Freud
the conscious - which contains information of which we
are currently aware
the preconscious - which holds information not presently within our awareness but that can readily be
brought into awareness
the unconscious - which, according to Freud, contains the majority of our memories and drives that, unfortunately, can only be raised to awareness with great difficulty and typically only in response to particular
techniques (that is, by psychoanalytic procedures)
id
structure present at birth and it contains, or represents, the biological or instinctual drives. These
drives demand instant gratification without concern for the
consequences either to the self or to others. In this sense, the id acts according to what Freud called the pleasure principle
ego
ego develops to curb the desires of the id so that the individual does not suffer any unpleasant consequences. There
is no concern here for what is right or wrong, but only for
the avoidance of pain or discomfort and the maximization of
unpunished pleasure. As the individual learns what expressions of desires are practical and possible, the ego comes to
be governed by the reality principle. Early in life, then, there is
a constant clash between the id and the ego, which is reduced
over time so long as the ego develops normally
superego
The superego is the internalization of the moral standards of society inculcated by the child’s parents. The operating guide of the superego is the moral principle, and it serves as the person’s conscience by monitoring the ego. The ego, therefore, attempts to satisfy the id while not offending the principles of the superego. The more strongly developed the ego, the better able it is to handle these often opposing pressures
Psychosexual stages of development
phallic stage - has received the greatest attention from psychoanalysts. In this stage, boys are presumed to
develop sexual desires for their mother and to see their father as a competitor for their mother’s love. This is described as the Oedipal complex.
Similarly, girls are thought to desire their father—not to win their father’s love, but rather, by seducing him, to
gain what they truly desire: a penis. In girls, this desire for the father is called the Electra complex
summary of psychosexual stages of development
Oral - Birth - 18 months - focus on oral activities (eg. eating and sucking)
Anal - 18 months - 3 years - Toilet training - child may cooperate or resist by soiling or withholding
phallic - 3 - 6 years - Oedipal or Electra complex
Latency - 6 - 12 years - consolidation of behavioural skills and attitudes - relatively quiescent stage
Genital - adolescence to death - achievement of personal and sexual maturity
defence mechanisms
The ego uses defence mechanisms to
allow the expression of libidinal desires in a distorted or symbolic form. The id, however, does its best to break through these defences, so that psychic energy is used up in this almost constant conflict between the ego and the id. The weaker the ego (that is, the less resolved the individual’s psychosexual stages), the greater the conflict and, thereby, the greater the exhaustion
of psychic energy
repression
Burying in the unconscious the unacceptable impulses of the id
eg. Inability to recall being
sexually abused as a
child
regression
Employing behaviours typical of an earlier stage of development
- Petulance or tantrums in response to frustration
projection
Attributing one’s own desires to others
eg. Someone who cheats on an exam, or is tempted to cheat, claiming everyone cheats
intellectualisation
Hiding the real issues behind a screen of abstract analyses
eg. A criminal appealing his conviction, despite admitting guilt, on the grounds of improper trial procedures
Denial
Refusal to acknowledge an unpleasant reality
eg. A person, told she has two months to live, planning a holiday in a year’s time
Displacement
The transfer of feelings from one person to another, less threatening
person
A person humiliated by her employer directing her anger toward her
spouse
Reaction formation
Repressing unacceptable desires by expressing the opposite viewpoint
- A man who has strong sexual desires toward most women berating
people who are promiscuous
Sublimation
Transformation of sexual or aggressive energy into some more acceptable
activity
- Freud thought that artists who painted nudes were sublimating their sexual desires
classical conditioning
all (or almost all) human behaviour, including abnormal behaviour, was learned
classical conditioning was the basis for this
What is learned in classical conditioning, then, is the transfer of a response (that is, the UCR or its practical replication, the CR) from
one stimulus (UCS) to another (CS). This process is called stimulus–stimulus learning
- Watson’s most famous application of this type of analysis was to the acquisition of phobias
two-factor theory
Mowrer suggested that two types of learning take place in the acquisition and maintenance of phobias
(1) classical conditioning establishes the aversive response to a previously
neutral stimulus (the CS)
(2) thereafter, the organism
avoids the CS in order to prevent feeling afraid.
operant conditioning
In Skinner’s operant conditioning, the consequences of behaviour are important. All actions are followed by consequences of one kind or another. Some consequences encourage the
repetition of the behaviour that produces them, whereas other
consequences result in the opposite effect
reinforcement
When behaviour increases in frequency as a result of consistent consequences,
reinforcement is said to occur
- Some behaviours lead to pleasant consequences or rewards, and the behaviour increases; this is called positive reinforcement.
- Other behaviours (for example, taking an aspirin) result in a reduction of distress (that is, the headache goes away); this is called negative reinforcement
punishment
when a behaviour decreases
in frequency as a result of its consequences, this is described
as punishment
- When a behaviour is reduced by
the consequent occurrence of an unpleasant experience, it is
called positive punishment - when the behaviour is reduced
following the removal of something desirable, negative punishment is said to have occurred
social learning theory
social learning theory suggested
that, although classical and operant conditioning experiences are important, the majority of these experiences occur within a social context and are primarily acquired vicariously—that is, by observation of others rather than by direct personal experience
eg. bo bo doll experiment
cognitive-behavioural theory
the view that both thinking and behaviour are learned and, therefore, can be changed. This approach assumes that the way in which
people view the world, including their beliefs and attitudes toward the world, themselves, and others, arises out of their experience and that these patterns of thinking and perceiving are maintained by consequences in the same way that overt behaviour is maintained.
all cognitive theories share three principles
- thinking effects emotion and behaviour
2, thoughts can be monitored and changed - by altering one’s thoughts, a person will experience desired behavioural and emotional change
rational-emotive behaviour therapy
when faced with unfavourable life circumstances, human beings tend to make themselves feel frustrated, disappointed, and miserable; and behave in self-defeating ways,
mainly because they construct irrational beliefs about themselves and their situations.
Beck’s cognitive model - emotions and behaviours are heavily influenced by individual perceptions or cognitive appraisals of events
Three main levels of cognition are
emphasized in this theory:
(1) schemas
(2) information processing and intermediate beliefs (including dysfunctional rules, assumptions, and attitudes)
3) automatic thoughts
Schemas
refer to internal representations of stored information and experiences. Schemas are used to organize new information in a meaningful way and help to determine how we perceive and understand what goes on around us
early maladaptive schemas
EMSs are broad, pervasive themes or
patterns that are composed of memories, emotions, cognitions, and bodily sensations regarding the self and one’s relationships with others
According to Beck, the development and organization of a maladaptive self-schema occurs during early childhood,
but the schema does not become active until it is triggered by negative life events
content-specificity
Different types of beliefs are considered to be related to different kinds of abnormal behaviour
- eg. Individuals who are depressed are
theorized to have negative automatic thoughts that focus on themes of personal loss, deprivation, and failure
automatic thoughts
the frequent thoughts that pop into our minds and that are not accompanied by
conscious appraisal
- Automatic thoughts are considered to be cognitive byproducts because they stem directly from an individual’s core beliefs, or schemas, in interaction with the environment
person-centred theory of personality
the person to be of central importance in understanding behaviour. According to Rogers, self-fulfillment is achieved by accepting oneself, being honest in all interactions, trusting experience (which he said is the highest authority), and relying on oneself for personal
evaluations. People who can do so will be able to accept others for who they are, thus encouraging both themselves and others to be more honest, and such honesty will help accumulate
experiences that will lead them to realize their potential.
self-actualization
Maslow described a hierarchy of needs that, when fully satisfied, result in the actualization of the person’s potential.
- Self-actualisation needs
- Esteem needs
- Belongingness needs
- Safety needs
- Physiological needs
existentialists
Existentialists see the individual’s
awareness of his or her own existence as a critical feature of human functioning. This awareness brings with it the realization that we could, and obviously eventually will, cease to exist.
- Existentialists also stress our responsibility for our choices and, therefore, for our actions. We make free choices and must necessarily take responsibility for them.
public stigma
refers to the “perception held by a group or society . . . that a person who
seeks psychological treatment is undesirable or socially unacceptable
self-stigma
“reduction of an individual’s self-esteem or self-worth caused by the individual self-labeling herself or himself as someone who is socially unacceptable”
importance of reducing mental health stigma
The importance of reducing mental health stigma and increasing the use of mental health services in Canada is
beginning to be realized
social support
There is clear evidence that social support from close others is a significant factor in preventing or
reducing the intensity of psychological problems, and that the absence of such support is a factor in the causal chain leading to dysfunction
influence of social media on perceived social support and mental wellbeing
(1) social media served as a unique form of social support for individuals with low levels of in-person social support. Conversely, for individuals who already had high levels of in-person
social support, the support provided by social media was largely redundant
(2) online social support and in-person
social support were each uniquely negatively associated with depressive thoughts, suggesting that each has incremental utility over and above the other. Importantly, these correlations were larger for in-person social support compared to online, which suggests that in-person support may be a more
influential form of support
(3) the benefits attained
from online and in-person social support outweigh some of the negative influences of peer victimization
- strategic use of social media in addition to in-person social relations can be beneficial in improving social support systems
Systems theory
Systems theory proposes that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, whereas reductionism says that the whole is the sum of its parts. A systems theory approach has had profound influences on many areas of science, including biology, engineering, and computer science
- Not only does systems theory suggest that causation is the result of multiple factors interacting, and that causation
is a bidirectional process, it also points out that the same end result can arise from one of many possible causes.
diathesis-stress perspective
a predisposition to developing a disorder (the diathesis) interacting with
the experience of stress causes mental disorders
- According to this view, this interaction underlies the onset of all disorders, although either the predisposition or the stress may be more important in a particular disorder, or in a particular
person.
biopsychosocial model
the biopsychosocial model declares that disorders cannot be understood as
resulting from the influence of one factor, be it biological, psychological, or social. Each of these factors must be taken into account, again with differing emphases depending on the disorder in question
