Chapter 2 Flashcards
each perspective encompasses
theories
define theory
broad, organized explanations and predictions of phenomena that provide a framework for understanding relationships btw organized sets of facts/principles
importance of scientific theories
allow for summary and organization of prior observations (systematic integration)
describe, explain, predict behavior
tested
what are the types of perspectives
psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, contextual, evolutionary
psychodynamic persp.
behavior motivated by INNER forces, memories, and conflicts that a person has little awareness or control of
what are the inner forces in psychodynamic persp.
stem from childhood and affect behavior throughout life
who developed the psychoanalytic theory and what perspective is it mostly associated with
freud
psychodynamic
what is the psychoanalytic theory
unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
what does the unconscious part of the psychoanalytic theory mean
part of personality hidden from awareness bc of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, etc. that we don’t want to admit (so they’re in our unconscious)
what are Freud’s aspects of personality
id, ego, superego
id description and principle and instincts
inborn, raw, unorganized, primitive desires of hunger, impulse, sex, aggressive etc, immediate gratification
pleasure principle: maximum satisfaction and reduce tension
life and death instincts, need to get needs met to avoid death
ego description and principle
rational, reasonable, buffer btw real world and id
reality principle: instinctual energy restrained for safety of ind. and integration into society
superego description and principle
conscience (right vs wrong)
morality principle
internalized ideals
Freud also argued _____ (define it too)
psychosexual development: series of stages that children pass through with pleasure or gratitude; focusing on body part and biological function
psychosexual stages
and what are children coping with
mouth (oral stage), anus (anal stage- bladder and bowel elimination), genitals/incestous sexual feelings, identify with same sex parent (phallic stage), latency period (sexual feelings, working on self sufficiency), genital period (puberty and on — maturation of sexual interests — sex)
demand/control
when does fixation occur and what is it
not giving enough gratitude or too much
definition: behavior of early stage of development due to unresolved conflict
examples of fixation
abnormally absorbed in oral activities like chewing gum, talking, etc.
what was erikson’s theory and what persp did it associate with
psychosocial; psychodynamic
psychosocial development
changing understanding of interactions with others, their behavior, and ourselves as society members
how are the stages of psychosocial dev
8 fixed stages that are similar in al ppl
what are theories influenced by? what do they depend on
culture and beliefs
scientific verification to prove it
ego is the ____ part of personality
executive; decides what action to take and considers demands of ego and ideals of superego
id makes the ____
demands
id vs ego
id operates on unconscious level, the ego operates on a conscious level
superego develops around ages
4-5
angel vs devil id, ego, superego
id is devil (cares about its own needs)
ego in middle
superego is angel
what does each stage of Erikson’s theory deal with
new stage/crisis that one needs to address to deal with the demands of next stage which increases in complexity
freud vs erikson
freud believed development completed by adolescence, but erikson believed growth and change occured thru lifespan
outside and inside of conscious mind: id, ego, superego
id is completely in unconscious
ego is in preconscious mind and conscious : outside awareness but accessible
superego is conscious and unconscious and preconscious
what did feud think personality arises from
conflict between impulses and restraint, which as we age impulses are eternalized by having restraint
erikson believed ____ and ____ shape and …
society and culture shape and challenge us throughout life
behavior persp
key to understanding development are observable behavior and env stimuli; focus on what ppl do than what goes on in the head
what does the behavior persp emphasis: nature or nurture
and how can you predict behavior
nurture
identify stimuli
what does the behavior perspective reject? instead?
reject idea that ppl pass through stages in life. instead ppl affected by env stimuli which makes developmental patterns more personal
according the behavioral persp, behavior is caused by
continued exposure to specific patterns in the environment
behavioral theories reflect what kind of change and why?
viewed in quantiative terms (problem solving skills result in greater mental capacies than new kind of thinking)
cont. change
important figure in behavioral persp and what did he believe
john watson
understand dev through env stimuli, change env = produce any behavior
classical conditioning
organism learns to respond to neutral stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke that kind of response; response to 1 stimulus corresponds to another stimulus because you are repeatedly pairing the stimulus and reflex
example of classical conditioning
pair of bell and dinner time (eevoke salvilation) now the sound of bell evokes a response that not most ppl respond to bells in that way
classical conditioning involves putting a ____ signal before _____ (define)
neutral signal before reflex (sneeze, salvilation, things outside of control-involuntary/autonomic)
figure in classical conditioning
pavlov
how does classical conditioning explain emotional behavior
stimulus (bad experience with a dog) has been substituted for other pets
types of learning falling under behavioral perp
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social-cognitive learning
operant conditioning
voluntary response strengthened/weakened by its association with +/- consequences
dif btw classical and operational conditioning
classical: autonomic and involuntary response after neutral stimulus
operant: voluntary response to begin with and reward/consequence after behavior
why is it called operational cond
ppl deliberately act on the environment to bring about desired consequences which is increased if reinforcement applied
why is reinforcement important in operational conditioning and what does it mean
reinforcement allows for ppl to repeat behaviors
def: stimulus INCREASES probability of repeating behavior
what will increase, decrease, etc. probabilities in operational conditioning
increase: reward (reinforcement)
(work harder if pay increases)
decrease: punishment
(take away or add painful stimulus = not going to do it again)
extinguished: no reinforcement
what is a principle of operational conditioning and what does it mean
behavior modification: technique for increasing frequency of desirable behavior and decreasing undesirable behavior
figure in operational conditioning and example
skinner; mouse pulling lever –cheese or shock
you can go to friends house if you clean your room
social cognitive learning development
emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of somebody else (a model)
social and cognitive learning tries to say that we don’t need to…
when we see somebody’s ….
we don’t need to experience the consequences ourselves
we see somebody’s behavior being rewarded, we mimick it
what are the four steps in social cognitive learning
- focus on critical aspects of model’s behavior
- recall behavior
- imitate behavior
- motivated to learn and carry out behavior
figure in social and cognitive learning
albert bendura
cognitive persp
focus on the processes that allow ppl to know, understand and think of the world
cognitive perspective emphasizes how ppl
internally represent and think about the world
figure in cognitive perspective
piaget
piaget’s theory of cognitive development
ppl passed through fixed sequence of universal stages of cognitive development
quantity of info increased and quality of understanding too
piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged in ______ (define)
schemes: organized mental patterns representing behavior and action
according to piaget, adaptation is explained by
assimilation and accomodation
assimilation
ppl understand a new experience using their current stage of cogn. dev./current thinking
accomodation
changes in existing ways of thinking in response to new stimuli (making room for a new category)
true or false: accomodation and assimilation work in tandem to bring cogn. dev
true
ex of accomodation vs assimilation
assimilation: child sees row of buttons closely spaced together and uses the scheme “bigger is more” to say that row has more buttons; baseball, basketball are all balls
accomodation: learns that number of buttons are the same because of a change of scheme; assimulation would tell them all four-legged animals are dogs but they realize not; scheme changes
is piaget’s theory cont or discont
discont
how many stages of cognitive development are there (according to piaget) and what are they
4:
- sensorymotor(motor skills, objects exist if they can’t be seen)
-preoperational (language and symbolic meaning)
-concrete operational (conservation, reversability)
- formal operational (logical and abstract thinking)
what are the approaches to cognitive persp.
piaget’s theory
info processing approach
cognitive neuroscience approach
information processing approach
approach to cognitive development that seeks to understand how ppl take in, use, and store info (influenced by computer dev)
what does the information processing approach say about cognitive dev (capacity)
input otuput
we have limited capacity to process information but we develop strategies to make processing more efficient and faster as we grow older; advances in information capacity – handle more info older we get
take in sensory information from env which is inputted into brains, brain will process and tell us how to respond, behavior is output
piaget’s theorry was qunt. or qual.
qualitative
non piaget theory
- cognitive skills made of different types of ind. skills
- development is slow in some areas and fast in others
- experience plays greater role in advancing cogn.dev.
information processing apprach is quant or qual, cont or disct
continuous, quantitative advances in cogn dev
cogn, neurosciene approach
approach to cognitive development focused on brain processes relation to cognitive activity
contextual perspective
perspective focusing on relationship btw individuals and their social, cognitive, physical, personality worlds
what does the contextual persp emphasize
must consider the social and cultural context
what approach is within the contexual persp
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach
5 levels of the env simutaneously influence the individual
what are the 5 levels of the env as bronfenbrenner stated
microsystem: immediate everyday env. (teachers, friends, family) and children construct it by shaping env around them
mesosystem: provides connections with microsystem (link btw child and parent, employee and boss_
exosystem: broader involving societal institutions like govt, church, school
macrosystem: larger cultural influences (religious value esystems, cultural beliefs, subcultures)
chronosystem: how passage of time and historical events/changes affect children’s behavior
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach says you can’t understand development without ____
understanding how child is influenced by EACH OF THE LEVELS
what does the mesosystem say about influences
direct and indirect influences that bind us tog
(mother taking out her bad day on her son(
exosystem affects what
what kind of impact does it have
mesosystem and microsystem
immediate, large impact on development
a change in one part of the system in the biological approach …
a change of env. factors …
affects other parts of the system
may have little difference if other levels aren’t changed
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach is multi___
directional; children affect parent’s behavior and vice versa
individualism
dominant western philosophy that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, and worth of the individual, self suffiecienty, achievement ,autonomy
collectivism
well being of the group is more important than that of the individual even at the expense of their own personal well being, selflessness, working as a group
true or false: broad cultural values play a little influence in shaping the ways ppl view the world and behave
false, plays big role
vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
cognitive development is result of social interactions btw members of a culture(learn through socialization)
what does vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasize?
- what’s meaningful to members of a culture
- interactions with others help children learn what’s important in society –> gain cognitive development of understanding of the world
vygotsky’s sociocultural theory believes in _______
reciprocal transaction btw ppl in the child’s environment and ppl
- ppl and env affect child, and the child affects ppl and env
the vygotsky’s sociocultural theory uses the example of ____
scaffolding because teachers, students provide temporarly support until child refrains from scaffold bcc they can do it on their own
what is the zone of proximal development
vygotsky’s sociocultural theory: scaffolding
- inner circle: i can do it myself (happens as you age)
- middle: i can do it with help (dress myself, but can’t button shirt)
- outer: i can’t do it, even with help
evolutionary persp
seeks to understand behavior that is the result of genetic inheritance from our ancestors
the evolutionary persp. focuses on how
genetics and env factors combine to influence behavior
genetics determines
physical traits, personality, social behavior
the evolutionary perspective draws on what field
ethology: biological makeup inf behavior
behavioral genetics: affect of heredity on behavior and if we inherit behavior
scientific method
posing and answer questions using careful, controlled techniques including systematic, orderly observation and collection of data
what are the steps to the scientific method
- identify questions of interest
- formulate explanation
- specifiy theory
- create hypothesis - carry out research
- operationalize
- choose research method
- collect data
- analyze data
theory
broad explanations and predictions about phenomena of interest
how are their theories dif from everyday theories
based on systematic integration of prior findings to summarize and organize prior findings to create new deductions
hypotheses
a prediction that can be tested – which tests the validity of a theory
operationalization
translating a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
correlational research
whether association or relationship exists btw 2 factors
it’s important to note that correlation doesn’t mean …
causation; one factor doesn’t cause changes in other
experimental research
discovers casual relationships among various factors (cause and effect)
types of research designs
correlational, experimental, longitudinal, cross sectional, sequential
what occurs during experimental research
introduce change to curated situation to see consequences; allows for predicability and to see cause and effect
correlation coefficient
positive 1: one thing goes up, other goes up (more time studying, better grades)
negative -1: one thing goes up, other goes down (less sleep, more cranky)
0: unrelated
longitudinal study
behavior of the same person/group pf ppl over a long period of time is measured
cross sectional study
ppl of different ages are compared at one specific point of time (ex. looking at a set of 3 year olds, vs 4 yer olds, to see how morality develops from 3-5)
- different people but same population
confounding variable
unmeasured variable other than ind variable that affects the dep variable
types of correlational studies
naturalistic observation
ethnographies
case studies
psychophysiological methods
naturalistic observation
observation of naturally occurring behavior without intervention
what are the drawbacks of naturalistic observation and pros
helps draw questions of interest but exert no control over factors of interest
ethnographies are an example of
qualitative research: describing in narrative fashion what is occurring and why
case studies
extensive, in-depth interviews with particular individual or small group leading to rich data
drawback of case studies
not generalizable – how one functions doesn’t reflect general pop
survey research
chosen group to represent a larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a topic
survey research often is represented throug
survey/questionarre
draw back of survery research
not as in depth as case study, and ppl may be unwilling to admit things
psychophysiological methods
relationship btw physiological processes and behavior using EEG, CAT, fMRI, etc.
experiment
experimenter devises 2 different experiences (called treatments) for subjects
treatment group
receive treatment/experimental group
control group
don’t receive any treatment or alternative treatment
why are control groups imp
experimenters can draw accurate conclusions about causes and effects; allows for comparison btw experimental group
what are ind variables
variables that experimenter manipulates
what are dep variables
variables that experimenter measures and expects to see a change in as result of experimental manipulation to determine impact of ind variable
ind and dep variable relation to each other
the ind variables is manipulated to observe effect on dep variable; dep variable depends on ind variable
example of ind and dep
ind: amount of sleep
dep: grade on quiz
random assignment
participant assigned to different groups based on chance to ensure that personal characteristics don’t affect outcome where researcher and participant don’t know what group they’re in
expereimental research is a means of determining
casuality
sample
group of partipants
field study
research investigation that occurs in naturally occuring setting
field studeis are used in _____ and employ
correlational studies and experiements but mostly correlational design .
naturalistic observation
lab study
research investigation conducted in controlled setting to hold events constant
research strategies
longitudinal research, cross -sectional, sequential
theoretical research vs applied
theoretical: test explanations and expand knowledge
applied: provide practical solutions to immediate problems
what do longitudinal studies provide
info about change over time
cross sectional reessearch downfall
cohort membership causes differences which might affect outcome
selective dropout: to quuit the study
sequential reesearch
studying a number of different age groups at several points in time
example of sequential research
interested in children’s moral behavior:
examine behavior of 3 groups of children who are 3,4,5 at the time they begin which would be the saame as cross sectional EXCEPT THAT THE STUDY CONTINUES
basic principles for researchers to follow
- no physical or psychological harm (participant’s rights first)
- informed consent (have access to aspects of research that affects their willingness to participate
- use of deception for justifiable reasons that cause no harm
- privacy maintenance of idenity for all info collected during research
- knowledge of resuslts
- beneficial treatments (treatment is benefifcial then you are ethically obligated to provide that treatment to those that didn’t receive it)
