Chapter 2 Flashcards
What are models of psychopathology?
-framework/set of basic assumptions that guide ways of viewing, thinking, and explaining what we see in the world
-guides the definition, examination, and treatment of mental disorders
What are the Major Models/Paradigms (one-dimensional models)?
-biological
-cognitive-behavioural
-psychoanalytic/psychodynamic
-humanistic
What is the problem with one-dimensional perspectives?
-each model has bias
-set up a false “either-or” dichotomy between accepting one explanation or another
-neglect the possibility that a variety of factors contribute to the development of mental disorders
-fail to recognize the reciprocal interactions of various factors
What is a Multipath Model?
-a model that provides an organizational framework for understanding the numerous influences on the development of mental disorders, the complexity of their interacting components, and the need to view disorders from a holistic framework
What are the assumptions of the multipath model?
-no one theoretical perspective is adequate to explain the development of mental disorders
-multiple pathways contribute to the development of any single disorder
-not all dimensions contribute equally
-the multipath model is integrative and interactive
How do dimensions work?
-each dimension may include variety of explanations
-interactions within and between dimensions
-different combinations within/across dimensions can influence disorders
-same factors may cause different disorders (genetic predisposition
What are the aspects of Dimension 1: Biological Factors?
-genetics; brain anatomy; biochemical imbalances; central nervous system functioning; autonomic nervous system reactivity
What are the assumptions of the Biological Factor?
-our characteristics are embedded in genetic material
-thoughts/ emotions/ behaviours involve/change biological processes
-mental disorders are associated with inherited biological vulnerability and/or brain abnormality
-medications and other biological interventions influence various biological processes in the brain
What are the Cerebral and Prefrontal Cortex responsible for?
-cerebral cortex: advanced cognitive functions
-prefrontal cortex: attention, behaviour, emotions
What is the Limbic System and its parts responsible for?
-limbic system: emotions, decision making, memories
–thalamus: “relay station” transmits nerve impulses throughout brain
–hypothalamus: regulates bodily drives through hormone release
–hippocampus: learning and memory
–amygdala: involves experiencing/expressing emotions and motivation
When is the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activated?
-activated under conditions of stress or emotional arousal
-dysregulation of HPA result in abnormal behaviours
What are the brain abnormalities that result in abnormal behaviours?
-abnormal functioning within brain regions; or
-structural differences in brain regions (Phineas Gage)
What is the basic structure of a neuron?
-dendrites: receive signals from other neurons
-cell body
-axons: send signals to other neurons
-synapse: gap between axon of sending neuron and dendrites of receiving neuron
What are neurotransmitters and their dysfunctions?
-chemicals involved in transmission of neural impulses
-dysfunction is: amount of NTs (too high or low); synapse deactivation mechanisms; receptor sensitivity (enzymes breaking down NTs too quickly or not at all)
What are the Major Neurotransmitters and their associated disorders?
-serotonin - OCD; Schizophrenia; mood disorders
-dopamine - Schizophrenia; ADHD; mood disorders; Parkinson’s
-Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) - anxiety disorders; ADHD
-Norepinephrine - anxiety disorders; sleep disorders
What is the function of serotonin?
-inhibitory effects regulate temperature, mood, appetite, and sleep
-reduced serotonin can increase impulsive behaviour and aggression
What is the function of dopamine?
-influences motivation and reward-seeking behaviours;
-regulates movement, emotional responses, attention, and planning;
-has excitatory and inhibitory effects
What is the function of GABA?
-major inhibitory NT, regulation of mood, arousal, behaviour, calm nerves
What is the function of norepinephrine?
-regulation of attention, arousal and concentration, dreaming, and moods
-as a hormone, influences physiological reactions related to stress response
What is Heredity?
-genetic transmission of traits
–heredity plays a role in most mental disorders
–most forms of abnormal behaviour are polygenic (multiple genes are involved)
What is Genotype?
-genetic material, unobservable, fixed at birth, inherited
What is Phenotype?
-observable trait (eye colour, behaviour, mental disorder)
-changes over time
-product of interaction between genotype and environment
What is gene expression?
-the process by which information encoded in a gene is translated into a phenotype
–genes can be “turned on” or “turned off”
What is epigenetics?
-field of biological research focused on understanding how environmental factors influence gene expression
What are the biology-based treatments?
-psychotropic medications
-electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
-psychosurgery
-brain stimulation treatments
What do Psychotropic medications do?
-do not cure mental disorders, they help alleviate symptoms
What are the positive effects of psychotropic medications?
-improves the lives of many people with mental illness
-stabilizing symptoms of mental health disorders
-individuals are better able to participate in other forms of treatment
What are the limitations of psychotropic medications?
-when medication ends the symptoms return
-side effects and possible drug-drug interactions
-limited focus on ethnic or gender group differences in physiological response to medication (trial & error)
What is ECT?
-induce small seizures with electricity or magnetism
-reserved for those not responding to other treatments
What is Psychosurgery?
-removing parts of the brain
-very uncommon today
What is brain stimulation treatments?
-repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
What are the critiques of biological models?
-ignores other important factors (culture, stress, social support)
-fails to consider individual’s unique circumstances
-unknown how biological factors cause disorders
-promote notion that mental illnesses are predetermined
-caution against reductionism (simplification of a phenomenon to its basic elements)
What is the impact of biological models?
-advances in psychopharmacology
-prevention/treatment of mental disorders should be possible by altering bodily functioning
-evidence that many drugs can dramatically alter the severity and course of certain mental disorders
What are the aspects of Dimension 2: Psychological Factors?
-personality; cognition; emotions; learning; stress-coping; self-esteem; self-efficacy; values; developmental history
What are the four major perspectives?
-psychoanalytic/
psychodynamic
-behavioural
-cognitive
-humanistic-existential
What is the difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic models?
-psychoanalytic theory - Freud’s original theory
-psychodynamic theories - post-Freudian theories
What are Freud’s 3 components of psyche and intrapsychic conflicts?
-Id: pleasure principle
-Ego: reality principle
-Superego: “conscience”, moral principal
-intrapsychic conflicts: psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts in the individual (results in anxiety)
What are Freud’s defense mechanisms?
-defense mechanisms are Ego’s way of reducing anxiety by consciously distorting reality
-displacement; repression; projection; rationalization; regression; sublimation; denial; reaction formation
What are contemporary psychodynamic theories?
-recognize the importanc eof unconscious
-importance of childhood experiences, can shape adult personality (agrees w/ Freud)
-agrees use of defense mechanisms to control anxiety and stress
-Bowlby and Mahler proposed: need to be loves, accepted, and emotionally supported is of primary importance in childhood
What are the therapies based on psychodynamic?
-Psychoanalysis: uncover material blocked from consciousness
-interpersonal psychotherapy: links childhood experiences with current relational patterns
-brief psychodynamic therapy: focus on past relationships issues and how they affect current emotional and relationship experiences
What are the critiques of psychodynamic models?
low empirical support (Freud’s ideas)
-development doesn’t stop in childhood
-people often remember traumatic events; not repressed
-fails to address cultural and social influence (focus on internal impulses)
-may not be useful with certain people (less talkative)
-far fewer treatment outcome studies compared to other models
What are Behavioural Models?
-abnormal behaviours are learned behaviours
-learning occurs through: classical conditioning (Pavlov; stimulus/response); operant conditioning (Skinner; reinforcement/consequences); modeling/observational learning (Bandura)
What is Modeling/Observational Learning?
-learning through observation alone, without directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement
-observe rewards/punishments received by others
-ex: Bobo doll experiment (Bandura)
What are some examples of observational learning in psychology?
-anxiety (phobias)
-substance use
-aggression/misconduct (domestic violence)
What are Behavioural Therapies?
-exposure therapy: counterconditioning the fear response
-behavioural parent management
-behavioural classroom management
-social skills training: assertiveness training (modelling; used for kids)
What are the critiques of behavioural models?
-often neglect inner determinants of behaviour (thoughts and emotions)
-neglect the sociocultural context in which the behaviour occur
What are Cognitive Models?
-we are all active interpreters of a situation
-focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behaviour
What is Albert Ellis’ ABC Theory?
-A: activating event
-B: Belief
-C: emotional and behavioural consequence
–emotional reactions are caused by irrational belief about a person/situation
What were Aaron Beck’s views?
-psychological problems produced by negative views about the self, others, and the future
-depression results from negative schemas (underlying representation that guides information processing)
-cognitive therapy
What are the aspects of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT)?
-learn to identify maladaptive thoughts
-recognize thoughts, feelings, behaviours are connected (cognitive triangle)
-gather evidence to support/refute negative thoughts
-replace negative thoughts
What is the third-wave CBT like?
-also focus on cognitions and behaviours
-instead of refuting irrational/negative thoughts, holds that nonreactive or nonjudgmental attention to emotions can reduce their power to create distress
What are the critiques of CB Models?
-reduce complex behaviours to simple learning or interpretations (dismisses biology)
-doesn’t address if problematic thoughts or depression comes first
-cognitions are not observable phenomena
-authority role of therapist: power to identify irrational beliefs may be intimidating
What is the impact of CB Models?
-strong evidence of its benefits in improving depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and schizophrenia (long-term; unlike meds)
What are humanistic Models?
-suggest that all humans strive to fulfill their potential for good (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs)
-mental disorders arise when this goal (self-actualization) is obstructed
-acknowledge the role of free will
What were Carl Rogers’ views?
-we have inherent tendency to strive toward the realization of one’s full potential
-anxiety occurs when there is discrepancies between self-perception and one’s ideal self
-client/person-centered therapy
What are the aspects of Client/person-centred therapy?
-unconditional positive regard
-empathy
-provides an accepting therapeutic environment to reactivate the potential for self-actualization
What is the Existential Perspective?
-focuses on universal challenges encountered by all humans
-psychopathology stems from the avoidance of important life challenges
-existential therapy
What is Existential Therapy?
-clients become aware of choices they have made (take responsibility)
-consider ways in which their freedom is impaired
-help people become intentional in directing their lives
What are the critiques of Humanistic-Existential Models?
-concepts are abstract/untestable
-self-awareness doesn’t always lead to change
-inability to address those with severe disorders (schizophrenia; better for depression and anxiety)
-dismiss cultural diversity/social factors (poverty, discrimination, etc.)
-more effective for verbal, intelligent people
What is the impact of humanistic models?
-focus on human choice and growth
-empathy and positive regard are important elements of therapy
-Carl Rogers advocated for empirically evaluating therapy outcomes (originating field of psychotherapy research)
What are the aspects of Dimension 3: Social Factors?
-family
-relationships
-social support
-belonging
-love
-marital status
-community
What is the focus and assumptions of the Social-Relational dimension?
-focus: how other people influence our behaviours and emotions
-assumptions: healthy relationships are important for human development and functioning; when relationships are dysfunctional or absent, individuals are more vulnerable to mental distress
What are the Social-Relational Treatments?
-Family Systems Model
-Family therapy
-Couples therapy
-Group therapy
What is the Family Systems Model?
-assumes behaviour of one family member affects entire family system
-mental illness reflects unhealthy family dynamics and poor communication
-therapist must focus on family system, not just on individuals
What is the focus of Family Therapy?
-improving communication, restructuring family dynamic and relational patterns
What is the focus of Couple Therapy?
-helps couples understand and clarify their communication, needs, roles, and expectations
What is the focus of Group Therapy?
-individuals that share certain life stressors or mental disorders
-allows participants to become involved in a social situation, develop communication skills, and feel less isolated
What are the critiques of Social-Relational Models?
-studies have generally not been rigorous in design
-family systems models may have negative consequences (blaming parents)
-cultural diversity is not adequately addressed
What are the aspects of Dimension 4: Sociocultural Factors?
-race
-gender
-sexual orientation
-religion
-socioeconomic status
-ethnicity
-culture
What factors does dimension 4 emphasize when explaining mental disorders?
-gender/sex
-race/ethnicity
-socioeconomic status
-immigration/acculturation
What are Gender Factors and why are they present?
-higher prevalence of many mental health conditions among women
Why: socialization processes; women may be subjected to more stress than men; increased risk of physical and sexual victimization; gender challenges are often accentuated for women of colour
What are some stressors associated with low Socioeconomic status (SES)?
-lower wage, unemployment, unstable unemployment
-housing insecurity
-food insecurity
-limited access to health care
–multilevel interventions are necessary to reduce the chronic environmental stressors
Were race and ethnicity considered in the past? What is being done now?
-early models criticized as being inaccurate, racist, and unsupported by scientific research
–inferiority model
–deficit model
-increasing research on effectiveness of treatment for different cultural groups and development of culturally adapted treatments
What are the views of the Multicultural model?
-being culturally different is not deviant, pathological, or inferior
-all behaviours should be considered from a cultural perspective
-mental health difficulties are sometimes due to sociocultural stressors (economics, racism, etc.)
What is Acculturative stress?
-psychological, physical, and social pressures associated with moving to a new country
What are examples of stressors linked to immigration?
-adapt new culture (customs/norms)
-hostile reception from government, public (racism & discrimination)
-loss of social support
-educational, language, and employment challenges
-loss of status and a sense of powerlessness
-acculturation conflicts between family members
-fears surrounding possible deportation or separation of families
What are Sociocultural considerations in treatment?
-effects of discrimination, marginalization, and environmental adversities, family experiences should be considered in treatments
-traditional therapies often do not consider the importance of other diversity issues, such as gender, disability, or sexual orientation
What are the critiques of multicultural models?
-critics see a disorder as a disorder regardless of culture (hallucinations)
-relies heavily on case studies and ethnographic analyses, limited rigorous research (unable to draw definitive conclusions on causation)
