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Anatomy & Physiology 2 > Chapter #19: The Blood > Flashcards

Chapter #19: The Blood Flashcards

1
Q

What does the cardiovascular system consist of?

A

-A pump (the heart)
-A series of conducting hoses (blood vessels)
-Fluid connective tissue (blood)

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2
Q

What is blood?

A

Specialized connective tissue

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3
Q

Functions of blood

A

-Transporting dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic wastes
-Regulating pH, ion composition of interstitial fluids
-Restricting fluid losses at injury sites
-Defending against toxins and pathogens
-Stabilizing body temperature

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4
Q

What are the parts of the blood?

A

-plasma
-formed elements

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5
Q

Plasma

A

fluid and proteins

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6
Q

Formed elements (in the blood)

A

-cells and cell fragments
-Red blood cells
-white blood cells
-cell fragments like platelets

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7
Q

Types of plasma proteins

A
  1. Albumins
  2. Globulins
  3. Fibrinogen
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8
Q

Albumins

A

-Plasma osmolarity
-Transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, some steroid hormones, etc.

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9
Q

Globulins

A

-Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
-Transport globulins

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10
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Soluble protein that functions in clotting

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11
Q

Hemopoiesis

A

Process of producing formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, and cell fragments)

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12
Q

Platelets

A

are small, membrane-bound cell fragments that contain enzymes and other substances important for clotting

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13
Q

Red Blood Cells

A

-Also called erythrocytes
-Contain hemoglobin

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14
Q

Hemoglobin (Hgb)

A

-part of RBCs
-Red pigment
-Binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

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15
Q

How is the RBC count measured?

A

-number of RBCs per microliter of whole blood
-males have a slightly higher RBC count than females

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16
Q

Hematocrit (HCT)

A

-Packed cell volume (PCV)
-Percentage of formed elements in blood
-males have a higher HCT count than females

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17
Q

Structure of RBCs

A

-Small, highly specialized cells
-Biconcave discs: Thin central region and thicker outer margin

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18
Q

Mature RBCs

A

-Anucleate (lack nuclei)
-Lack mitochondria and ribosomes
-Unable to divide, synthesize proteins, or repair damage
-Live about 120 days

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19
Q

Hemoglobin Structure

A

-Four globular protein subunits

-Iron attaches to oxygen (HbO2)
–dissociates easily

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20
Q

Four globular protein subunits

A

-Two alpha (α) chains and two beta (β) chains
-Each with one molecule of heme
-Each heme contains one iron ion

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21
Q

Hemoglobin function

A

-Each RBC contains millions of Hb molecules
–Each RBC can carry over a billion molecules of O2

-In peripheral capillaries, where O2 is low, hemoglobin
–Releases O2
–Binds CO2

-At the lungs, where O2 is high, hemoglobin
–Binds O2
–Releases CO2

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22
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

-Red blood cell formation
-In adults, occurs only in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow)

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23
Q

Stages of RBC maturation

A

-The last 2 stages of RBC maturation:
–Reticulocyte (day 5 – 7)
—Hb synthesis
—still contains RNA

-Mature RBC

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24
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A

-Hormone that stimulates erythropoiesis
-Secreted by kidneys and liver when oxygen in peripheral tissues is low (hypoxia)
–Released into blood –> Red Bone Marrow –> Stem cells and developing RBC’s
—Speeds up RBC maturation

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25
When is erythropoietin released?
-Anemia -Decreased blood to kidneys -Decreased air O2 content -Damaged lungs
26
Peripheral Capillaries
smallest microscopic blood cell
27
Hemoglobin recycling
-macrophages of spleen, liver, and red bone marrow
28
Macrophages
-Engulf aged RBCs -Remove Hb molecules from hemolyzed (ruptured) RBCs -Break Hb into components --Only the iron of each heme unit is recycled -Iron is removed from each heme unit --Converted to orange-yellow bilirubin -Bilirubin is excreted by liver in bile --Jaundice is caused by buildup of bilirubin
29
Surface antigens
-Substances on plasma membranes that identify cells to immune system -Normal cells are ignored and foreign cells are attacked
30
Blood type
Determined by the presence or absence of surface antigens on RBCs: A, B, and Rh (or D)
31
Four blood types
-Type A (surface antigen A) -Type B (surface antigen B) -Type AB (antigens A and B) -Type O (neither A nor B)
32
Rh blood group
-Based on presence or absence of Rh antigen -Rh positive (Rh+) --Rh surface antigen is present (e.g., Type O+) -Rh negative (Rh–) --Rh antigen is absent (e.g., Type O–)
33
Agglutinogens
-Surface antigens on RBCs -Screened by immune system
34
Agglutinins
-Antibodies in plasma -Attack antigens on foreign RBCs --Causing agglutination (clumping) of foreign cells
35
Agglutinins (types of them for each blood type)
-Type A blood --Anti-B antibodies -Type B blood --Anti-A antibodies -Type O blood --Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies -Type AB blood --Neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies -Only sensitized Rh– blood has anti-Rh antibodies
36
Hemolysis
the breaking of any RBCs
37
Cross-reaction (transfusion reaction)
-May occur in a transfusion of blood or plasma from one person to another -Occurs if donor and recipient blood types are not compatible -Plasma antibody meets its specific surface antigen --RBCs agglutinate and may hemolyze
38
Compatibility testing
-Performed in advance of transfusions -Cross-match testing : Reveals cross-reactions between donor’s RBCs and recipient’s plasma
39
White blood cells (WBCs)
Also called leukocytes
40
Function of WBCs
-Defending body against pathogens -Removing toxins and wastes -Attacking abnormal or damaged cells
41
Types of WBCs
1. Neutrophils 2. Eosinophils 3. Basophils 4. Monocytes 5. Lymphocytes
42
Neutrophils
-Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes -Pale cytoplasmic granules containing --Lysosomal enzymes --Bactericidal (bacteria-killing) compounds -Very active, phagocytic cells -Attack and digest bacteria -Degranulation: Occurs when vesicle containing pathogen fuses with lysosomes containing enzymes and defensins --Dead neutrophils contribute to pus
43
Eosinophils (acidophils)
-Attack large parasites by releasing toxic compounds -Sensitive to allergens -Release enzymes that reduce inflammation caused by mast cells and neutrophils
44
Basophils
-Cross capillary endothelium and accumulate in damaged tissues -Release: 1. Histamine—dilates blood vessels 2. Heparin—prevents blood clotting
45
Monocytes
-Then enter peripheral tissues to become macrophages --Aggressive phagocytes that engulf large pathogens --Release chemicals that attract other phagocytic cells and fibroblasts to injured area
46
Lymphocytes
-Continuously migrate in and out of bloodstream -Part of body’s specific defense system
47
Three classes of lymphocytes
1. T cells (T lymphocytes) 2. B cells (B lymphocytes) 3. Natural killer (NK) cells
48
T cells
-Cell-mediated immunity -Attack foreign cells or control other lymphocytes
49
B cells
-Differentiate into plasma cells, which synthesize antibodies
50
Natural killer (NK) cells
-Detect and destroy abnormal cells
51
Platelets (thrombocytes)
-Cell fragments involved in clotting system
52
Functions of platelets
-Release important clotting chemicals -Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls
53
Types of Platelets
1. Thrombocytopoiesis 2. Megakaryocytes
54
Thrombocytopoiesis
-Platelet production -Occurs in red bone marrow
55
Megakaryocytes
-Giant cells in red bone marrow -Produce platelets by shedding membrane-enclosed packets of cytoplasm
56
Hemostasis
Cessation of bleeding
57
Three Phases of Hemostasis
1. Vascular phase 2. Platelet phase 3. Coagulation phase
58
Vascular Phase
-A cut triggers vascular spasm --Contraction of smooth muscle fibers of vessel wall --Lasts about 30 minutes --Vasoconstriction
59
Changes in endothelium during vascular phase
-Endothelial cells contract and expose basement membrane to bloodstream -Endothelial cells release chemical factors and local hormones --Cause smooth muscle contraction and cell division -Endothelial plasma membranes become “sticky” --Adhere to platelets --Seal off tear and prevent blood flow
60
Platelet phase
-Platelet adhesion: Platelets attach to exposed surfaces -Platelet aggregation: Platelets stick to each other and endothelium/collagen with help of von willebrand factor --Forms platelet plug that closes small breaks -Activated platelets release clotting compounds
61
Coagulation phase
-Involves chain reactions of three pathways -Fibrin mesh --Extrinsic + Intrinsic pathways: activates prothrombinase --Common pathway: Prothrombinase: prothrombin --> thrombin --Thrombin: fibrinogen --> fibrin --Fibrin --> fibrin mesh --> stable clot
62
Three Pathways of the Coagulation Phase
1. Extrinsic pathway (exposure) 2. Intrinsic pathway (platelets) 3. Common pathway (form mesh)
63
How does the coagulation phase help with homeostasis?
-Thrombin generated in common pathway -Forms positive feedback loop that accelerates clotting process (important in this process to stop the clot faster)
64
Clot retraction
-Pulls torn edges of vessel closer together --Reduces residual bleeding --Stabilizes injury site -Reduces size of damaged area --Making it easier for repair cells to complete repairs

Anatomy & Physiology 2 (8 decks)

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