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Anatomy & Physiology 2 > Chapter #19: The Blood > Flashcards

Chapter #19: The Blood Flashcards

1
Q

What does the cardiovascular system consist of?

A

-A pump (the heart)
-A series of conducting hoses (blood vessels)
-Fluid connective tissue (blood)

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2
Q

What is blood?

A

Specialized connective tissue

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3
Q

Functions of blood

A

-Transporting dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic wastes
-Regulating pH, ion composition of interstitial fluids
-Restricting fluid losses at injury sites
-Defending against toxins and pathogens
-Stabilizing body temperature

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4
Q

What are the parts of the blood?

A

-plasma
-formed elements

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5
Q

Plasma

A

fluid and proteins

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6
Q

Formed elements (in the blood)

A

-cells and cell fragments
-Red blood cells
-white blood cells
-cell fragments like platelets

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7
Q

Types of plasma proteins

A
  1. Albumins
  2. Globulins
  3. Fibrinogen
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8
Q

Albumins

A

-Plasma osmolarity
-Transport fatty acids, thyroid hormones, some steroid hormones, etc.

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9
Q

Globulins

A

-Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
-Transport globulins

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10
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Soluble protein that functions in clotting

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11
Q

Hemopoiesis

A

Process of producing formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, and cell fragments)

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12
Q

Platelets

A

are small, membrane-bound cell fragments that contain enzymes and other substances important for clotting

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13
Q

Red Blood Cells

A

-Also called erythrocytes
-Contain hemoglobin

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14
Q

Hemoglobin (Hgb)

A

-part of RBCs
-Red pigment
-Binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

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15
Q

How is the RBC count measured?

A

-number of RBCs per microliter of whole blood
-males have a slightly higher RBC count than females

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16
Q

Hematocrit (HCT)

A

-Packed cell volume (PCV)
-Percentage of formed elements in blood
-males have a higher HCT count than females

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17
Q

Structure of RBCs

A

-Small, highly specialized cells
-Biconcave discs: Thin central region and thicker outer margin

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18
Q

Mature RBCs

A

-Anucleate (lack nuclei)
-Lack mitochondria and ribosomes
-Unable to divide, synthesize proteins, or repair damage
-Live about 120 days

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19
Q

Hemoglobin Structure

A

-Four globular protein subunits

-Iron attaches to oxygen (HbO2)
–dissociates easily

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20
Q

Four globular protein subunits

A

-Two alpha (α) chains and two beta (β) chains
-Each with one molecule of heme
-Each heme contains one iron ion

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21
Q

Hemoglobin function

A

-Each RBC contains millions of Hb molecules
–Each RBC can carry over a billion molecules of O2

-In peripheral capillaries, where O2 is low, hemoglobin
–Releases O2
–Binds CO2

-At the lungs, where O2 is high, hemoglobin
–Binds O2
–Releases CO2

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22
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

-Red blood cell formation
-In adults, occurs only in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow)

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23
Q

Stages of RBC maturation

A

-The last 2 stages of RBC maturation:
–Reticulocyte (day 5 – 7)
—Hb synthesis
—still contains RNA

-Mature RBC

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24
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A

-Hormone that stimulates erythropoiesis
-Secreted by kidneys and liver when oxygen in peripheral tissues is low (hypoxia)
–Released into blood –> Red Bone Marrow –> Stem cells and developing RBC’s
—Speeds up RBC maturation

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25
Q

When is erythropoietin released?

A

-Anemia
-Decreased blood to kidneys
-Decreased air O2 content
-Damaged lungs

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26
Q

Peripheral Capillaries

A

smallest microscopic blood cell

27
Q

Hemoglobin recycling

A

-macrophages of spleen, liver, and red bone marrow

28
Q

Macrophages

A

-Engulf aged RBCs
-Remove Hb molecules from hemolyzed (ruptured) RBCs
-Break Hb into components
–Only the iron of each heme unit is recycled
-Iron is removed from each heme unit
–Converted to orange-yellow bilirubin
-Bilirubin is excreted by liver in bile
–Jaundice is caused by buildup of bilirubin

29
Q

Surface antigens

A

-Substances on plasma membranes that identify cells to immune system
-Normal cells are ignored and foreign cells are attacked

30
Q

Blood type

A

Determined by the presence or absence of surface antigens on RBCs: A, B, and Rh (or D)

31
Q

Four blood types

A

-Type A (surface antigen A)
-Type B (surface antigen B)
-Type AB (antigens A and B)
-Type O (neither A nor B)

32
Q

Rh blood group

A

-Based on presence or absence of Rh antigen
-Rh positive (Rh+)
–Rh surface antigen is present (e.g., Type O+)
-Rh negative (Rh–)
–Rh antigen is absent (e.g., Type O–)

33
Q

Agglutinogens

A

-Surface antigens on RBCs
-Screened by immune system

34
Q

Agglutinins

A

-Antibodies in plasma
-Attack antigens on foreign RBCs
–Causing agglutination (clumping) of foreign cells

35
Q

Agglutinins (types of them for each blood type)

A

-Type A blood
–Anti-B antibodies
-Type B blood
–Anti-A antibodies
-Type O blood
–Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies
-Type AB blood
–Neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies
-Only sensitized Rh– blood has anti-Rh antibodies

36
Q

Hemolysis

A

the breaking of any RBCs

37
Q

Cross-reaction (transfusion reaction)

A

-May occur in a transfusion of blood or plasma from one person to another
-Occurs if donor and recipient blood types are not compatible
-Plasma antibody meets its specific surface antigen
–RBCs agglutinate and may hemolyze

38
Q

Compatibility testing

A

-Performed in advance of transfusions
-Cross-match testing : Reveals cross-reactions between donor’s RBCs and recipient’s plasma

39
Q

White blood cells (WBCs)

A

Also called leukocytes

40
Q

Function of WBCs

A

-Defending body against pathogens
-Removing toxins and wastes
-Attacking abnormal or damaged cells

41
Q

Types of WBCs

A
  1. Neutrophils
  2. Eosinophils
  3. Basophils
  4. Monocytes
  5. Lymphocytes
42
Q

Neutrophils

A

-Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
-Pale cytoplasmic granules containing
–Lysosomal enzymes
–Bactericidal (bacteria-killing) compounds

-Very active, phagocytic cells
-Attack and digest bacteria
-Degranulation: Occurs when vesicle containing pathogen fuses with lysosomes containing enzymes and defensins
–Dead neutrophils contribute to pus

43
Q

Eosinophils (acidophils)

A

-Attack large parasites by releasing toxic compounds
-Sensitive to allergens
-Release enzymes that reduce inflammation caused by mast cells and neutrophils

44
Q

Basophils

A

-Cross capillary endothelium and accumulate in damaged tissues
-Release:
1. Histamine—dilates blood vessels
2. Heparin—prevents blood clotting

45
Q

Monocytes

A

-Then enter peripheral tissues to become macrophages
–Aggressive phagocytes that engulf large pathogens
–Release chemicals that attract other phagocytic cells and fibroblasts to injured area

46
Q

Lymphocytes

A

-Continuously migrate in and out of bloodstream
-Part of body’s specific defense system

47
Q

Three classes of lymphocytes

A
  1. T cells (T lymphocytes)
  2. B cells (B lymphocytes)
  3. Natural killer (NK) cells
48
Q

T cells

A

-Cell-mediated immunity
-Attack foreign cells or control other lymphocytes

49
Q

B cells

A

-Differentiate into plasma cells, which synthesize antibodies

50
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells

A

-Detect and destroy abnormal cells

51
Q

Platelets (thrombocytes)

A

-Cell fragments involved in clotting system

52
Q

Functions of platelets

A

-Release important clotting chemicals
-Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls

53
Q

Types of Platelets

A
  1. Thrombocytopoiesis
  2. Megakaryocytes
54
Q

Thrombocytopoiesis

A

-Platelet production
-Occurs in red bone marrow

55
Q

Megakaryocytes

A

-Giant cells in red bone marrow
-Produce platelets by shedding membrane-enclosed packets of cytoplasm

56
Q

Hemostasis

A

Cessation of bleeding

57
Q

Three Phases of Hemostasis

A
  1. Vascular phase
  2. Platelet phase
  3. Coagulation phase
58
Q

Vascular Phase

A

-A cut triggers vascular spasm
–Contraction of smooth muscle fibers of vessel wall
–Lasts about 30 minutes
–Vasoconstriction

59
Q

Changes in endothelium during vascular phase

A

-Endothelial cells contract and expose basement membrane to bloodstream
-Endothelial cells release chemical factors and local hormones
–Cause smooth muscle contraction and cell division

-Endothelial plasma membranes become “sticky”
–Adhere to platelets
–Seal off tear and prevent blood flow

60
Q

Platelet phase

A

-Platelet adhesion: Platelets attach to exposed surfaces

-Platelet aggregation: Platelets stick to each other and endothelium/collagen with help of von willebrand factor
–Forms platelet plug that closes small breaks

-Activated platelets release clotting compounds

61
Q

Coagulation phase

A

-Involves chain reactions of three pathways

-Fibrin mesh
–Extrinsic + Intrinsic pathways: activates prothrombinase
–Common pathway: Prothrombinase: prothrombin –> thrombin
–Thrombin: fibrinogen –> fibrin
–Fibrin –> fibrin mesh –> stable clot

62
Q

Three Pathways of the Coagulation Phase

A
  1. Extrinsic pathway (exposure)
  2. Intrinsic pathway (platelets)
  3. Common pathway (form mesh)
63
Q

How does the coagulation phase help with homeostasis?

A

-Thrombin generated in common pathway
-Forms positive feedback loop that accelerates clotting process (important in this process to stop the clot faster)

64
Q

Clot retraction

A

-Pulls torn edges of vessel closer together
–Reduces residual bleeding
–Stabilizes injury site

-Reduces size of damaged area
–Making it easier for repair cells to complete repairs

Anatomy & Physiology 2 (8 decks)

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