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A&P II > Chapter 18: The Endocrine System > Flashcards

Chapter 18: The Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Nervous System vs. Endocrine System: Mediator Molecules

A

Nervous System: Neurotransmitters released locally in response to nerve impulses
Endocrine System: Hormones delivered to tissue throughout the body by blood.

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2
Q

Nervous System vs. Endocrine System: Site of Mediator Action

A

Nervous System: close to site of release, at synapse; binds to receptors in postsynaptic membrane
Endocrine System: far from site of release (usually); binds to receptors on or in target cells

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3
Q

Nervous System vs. Endocrine System: Types of Target Cells

A

Nervous System: muscle (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal) cells, gland cells, other neurons
Endocrine System: cells throughout the body

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4
Q

Nervous System vs. Endocrine System: Time to onset of action

A

Nervous System: typically within milliseconds (thousandths of a second)
Endocrine System: seconds to hours or days

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5
Q

Nervous System vs. Endocrine System: Duration of action

A

Nervous System: generally briefer than endocrine system (milliseconds)
Endocrine System: generally longer than nervous system (seconds to days)

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6
Q

Endocrine Glands

A
  • composed of endocrine cells and tissues.

- produce and secrete hormones that move through the bloodstream to reach their target cells.

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7
Q

In order for a hormone to affect a target cell, a hormone must first

A

bind to a specific receptor

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8
Q

target cells

A

tissues that must have specific receptors to which a specific hormone binds.

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9
Q

List the endocrine glands

A
  1. hypothalamus (in the brain)
  2. pituitary gland: anterior and posterior pituitary (in the brain)
  3. thyroid gland (around trachea)
  4. parathyroid gland (on thyroid gland)
  5. adrenal gland: adrenal cortex and medulla (on top of kidneys)
  6. pancreas (tucked behind stomach)
  7. gonads: testes (in scrotum) and ovaries (lower abdomen)
  8. thymus gland (in front of the heart)
  9. pineal gland (in the brain)
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10
Q

Gastrin

A
  • promotes secretion of gastric juice

- increases movements of the stomach

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11
Q

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIIP)

A

stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic beta cells

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12
Q

Secretin

A

stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile

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13
Q

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A
  • stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice
  • regulates release of bile from gallbladder
  • causes feeling of fullness after eating
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14
Q

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

A

stimulates corpus luteum in ovary to continue production of estrogen’s and progesterone to maintain pregnancy

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15
Q

Estrogens and progesterone

A
  • maintain pregnancy

- help prepare mammary glands to secrete milk

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16
Q

Hyman chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)

A

stimulates development of mammary glands for lactation

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17
Q

Renin

A

part of reaction sequence that raises blood pressure by bringing about vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone

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18
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A

increases rate of red blood cell formation

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19
Q

Calcitriol (active form of Vit D)

A

aids in absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus

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20
Q

Atrial Natriueretic

A

decreases blood pressure

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21
Q

Leptin

A
  • suppresses appetite

- may increase FSH and LH activity

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22
Q

Hormones

A

long distance chemical signals; travel in blood or lymph

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23
Q

Autocrines

A

chemicals that exert effects on same cells that secrete them

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24
Q

Paracrines

A

-locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them

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25
Q

What are the 3 chemical messengers?

A
  1. hormones
  2. autrocrines
  3. paracrines
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26
Q

Paracrines and Autrocrines are referred to as

A

local chemical messengers; not considered part of endocrine system

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27
Q

What are the 6 functions of hormones?

A
  1. Control cellular metabolism, growth and division (e.g. stimulate mitosis)
  2. Stimulate synthesis of enzymes &/or other proteins
  3. Control body fluids and electrolyte balance
  4. Control the secretion of other hormones
  5. Regulate reproductive cycles
  6. Regulate homeostasis by negative or positive feedback loop
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28
Q

What are the four types of hormones?

A
  1. Amino Acid Derivatives
  2. Peptide Hormones
  3. Lipid Derivatives
  4. Gas
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29
Q

Amino Acid Derivatives

A
  • modified amino acid: tyrosine and tryptophan

ex) epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, melatonin, histamine, serotonin, thyroid hormones (T3, and T4)

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30
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

-glycoproteins and short/small proteins

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31
Q

glycoproteins

A
  • more than 200 amino acids long with carbohydrate side chains
    ex) thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
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32
Q

short/small proteins

A
  • less than 200 amino acids

ex) antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin (OXT), growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL)

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33
Q

Lipid Derivatives

A

eicosanoids and steroids

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34
Q

eicosanoids

A
  • derived from arachidonic acid

ex) leukotrienes, prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins

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35
Q

steroids

A
  • derived from cholesterol

ex) androgens, estrogens, progestins, corticosteroids, calcitriol

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36
Q

Gas Hormones

A

Nitric Oxide (NO): (produced by endothelial cells lining blood vessels)

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37
Q

Hormones act in one of 2 ways:

A
  1. Water-Soluble Hormones

2. Lipid-soluble Hormones

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38
Q

Water-soluble Hormones

A
  • (all amino acid–based hormones except thyroid hormone)
  • Act on plasma membrane receptors
  • Act via G protein second messengers
  • Cannot enter cell
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39
Q

Lipid-soluble Hormones

A
  • (steroid and thyroid hormones)
  • Act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes
  • Can enter cell
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40
Q

Steps when water-soluble hormone binds to receptor:

A
  1. binding of hormone (1st messenger) to its receptor activates G protein, which activates adenlyate cyclase
  2. activated adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
  3. cAMP serves as a 2nd messenger to activate protein kinases
  4. activated protein kinases phosphorylate cellular proteins
  5. millions of phosphorylated proteins cause reactions that produce physiological responses
  6. phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP
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41
Q

Steps when lipid-soluble hormones binds to receptor:

A
  1. lipid-soluble hormone diffuses into cell and binds to intraccellular receptor
  2. the receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus and binds to a specific DNA region
  3. binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
  4. the mRNA directs protein synthesis
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42
Q

cAMP

A
  • Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

- a second messenger important in many biological processes

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43
Q

What are the 3 stimuli that controls the release of hormones?

A
  1. humoral stimulus
  2. neural stimulus
  3. hormonal stimulus
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44
Q

Humoral Stimulus

A

hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients.

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45
Q

Neural Stimulus

A

hormone release caused by neural input

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46
Q

Hormonal Stimulus

A

hormone release caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone)

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47
Q

Blood levels of hormones are controlled by

A

negative feedback systems:

  • increased hormone effects on target organs can inhibit further hormone release
  • levels vary only within narrow, desirable range
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48
Q

What is the stimulus and response that occurs during a humoral stimulus?

A

Stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood
Response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which increases Ca2+

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49
Q

What is the stimulus and response that occurs during a neural stimulus?

A

Stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
Response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine.

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50
Q

What is the stimulus and response that occurs during a hormonal stimulus?

A

Stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
Response: anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones.

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51
Q

Target cell activation depends on 3 factors:

A
  1. blood levels of hormone
  2. relative number of receptors on/in target cell
  3. affinity (strength) of binding between receptor and hormone
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52
Q

Amount of hormone can influence the

A

number of receptors for that hormone

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53
Q

Up-regulation

A

target cells form more receptors or increase affinity in response to low hormone levels

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54
Q

Down-regulation

A
  • target cells lose receptors or decrease affinity in response to high hormone levels
  • desensitizes target cells to prevent them from overreacting to persistently high levels of hormone
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55
Q

Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells: 3 Types

A
  1. Permissiveness
  2. Synergism
  3. Antagonism
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56
Q

Permissiveness

A
  • one hormone cannot exert its full effects without another hormone being present
    ex) reproductive system development largely regulated by reproductive system hormones but need thyroid hormone for timely development of reproductive system structures
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57
Q

Synergism

A
  • more than one hormone produces same effects on target cell, causing amplification
    ex) glucagon and epinephrine both cause liver to release glucos
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58
Q

Antagonism

A
  • one or more hormones oppose(s) action of another hormone

ex) insulin and glucagon

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59
Q

How does the hypothalamus regulate the internal environment through the autonomic nervous system? (4)

A
  1. helps control water balance
  2. controls glandular secretions
  3. helps control heartbeat
  4. helps control body temperature
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60
Q

What 3 ways does the hypothalamus link the nervous system and the endocrine system?

A
  1. Acts as an Endocrine Organ. Neurosecretory cells within the hypothalamus produces the hormone which then passes through the axons into the posterior pituitary where they are stored in the ends of the axon and released when needed.
  2. Secretes Regulatory Hormones that control the endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary.
  3. Exerts direct control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal gland (adrenal medulla) by means of actions potentials (sending nerve impulses, rather than through regulatory hormone
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61
Q

Hormones produced by the hypothalamus

A

ADH and Oxytocin (OXT)

62
Q

What are the two regulatory hormones that control the endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary?

A
  1. Hypothalamic Releasing Hormone (RH)

2. Hypothalamic Inhibiting Hormone (IH)

63
Q

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormone (RH)

A
  • stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete hormones

- produced by neurosecretory (neuroendocrine) cells

64
Q

Hypothalamic Inhibiting Hormone (IH)

A
  • inhibits the anterior pituitary to not secrete hormones

- produced by neurosecretory (neuroendocrine) cells

65
Q

The hypothalamus will stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine from chromaffin cells

66
Q

hypophysis

A

the pituitary gland

67
Q

neurohypophysis

A
  • the posterior pituitary
  • is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland which is part of the endocrine system.
  • not glandular
68
Q

adenohypophysis

A
  • the anterior pituitary

- the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior lobe makes up the pituitary gland

69
Q

neuroendocrine

A

relating to or involving both nervous stimulation and endocrine secretion

70
Q

tropic hormone

A

hormone release caused by another hormone

71
Q

neurosecretory cells

A
  • a type of neuron, or nerve cell, whose function is to translate neural signals into chemical stimuli (neuron that secretes hormones)
  • secretes a hypothalamic-releasing hormone or inhibiting hormone into blood capillaries of the hypothalamus
72
Q

myxedema

A
  • caused by hyposecretion of TH in an adult
  • Symptoms: low metabolic rate, thick and/or dry skin, puffy eyes, feeling chilled, constipation, edema, mental sluggishness, letharg
73
Q

goiter

A
  • a swelling of the neck from enlargement of the thyroid gland
74
Q

What causes goiter?

A
  1. caused by lack of iodine which decreases TH levels
  2. low TH levels triggers increased TSH secretion
  3. increased TSH secretion triggers thyroid to synthesize more and more unusable thyroglobulin –> thyroid enlarges
75
Q

cretinism

A
  • caused by hypersecretion in infants

- symptoms include intellectual disabilities, short and disproportionately sized body, thick tongue and neck

76
Q

Grave’s disease

A
  • caused by hypersecretion of TH: most common type
  • Autoimmune disease: body makes abnormal antibodies directed against thyroid follicular cells
  • Antibodies mimic TSH, stimulating TH release
77
Q

Grave’s disease: Symptoms

A
  • include elevated metabolic rate, sweating, rapid and irregular heartbeats, nervousness, and weight loss despite adequate food
    • Exophthalmos may result: eyes protrude as tissue behind eyes becomes edematous (swollen) and fibrous
78
Q

Grave’s disease: Treatment

A

include surgical removal of thyroid or radioactive iodine to destroy active thyroid cell

79
Q

hypersecretion of growth hormone is usually caused by

A
  • anterior pituitary tumor.
  • in children results in gigantism
  • in adults, results in acromegaly
80
Q

gigantism

A
  • a result of hypersecretion of growth hormone in children
  • is usually caused by an anterior pituitary tumor
  • can reach heights of 8 feet
81
Q

acromegaly

A
  • a result of hypersecretion of the growth hormone in adults
  • is usually caused by an anterior pituitary tumor
  • overgrowth of hands, feet and face
82
Q

pituitary dwarfism

A
  • caused by hyposecretion of growth hormone in children

- may reach height of only feet

83
Q

hypersecretion of prolactin is more common than

A
  • hyposecretion.

* Hyposecretion is not a problem in anyone except women who choose to nurse.

84
Q

hyperprolactinemia

A
  • the most frequent abnormality of anterior pituitary tumors

- Clinical signs include galactorrhea, amenorrhea, infertility in females, and impotence in males (erectile dysfunction)

85
Q

galactorrhea

A

inappropriate lactation

86
Q

amenorrhea

A

abnormal absence of menstruation

87
Q

exocrine glands

A
  • are glands that secrete their products into ducts
  • they are the counterparts to endocrine glands, which secrete their products directly into the bloodstream
  • include sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and many glands of the digestive system.
88
Q

ketoacidosis

A

Ketones are acidic, and their build-up in blood can cause ketoacidosis.

89
Q

ketonuria

A
  • ketone bodies in urine.

- can be caused build-up of ketones (acidic) in the blood along with ketoacidosis.

90
Q

lipidemia

A

high levels of fatty acids in blood

91
Q

When sugars cannot be used as fuel, as in DM, fats are used, causing ________.

A

lipidemia

92
Q

Fatty acid metabolism results in formation of _________.

A

ketones (ketone bodies)

93
Q

Untreated ketoacidosis causes

A

hyperpnea, disrupted heart activity and O2 transport, and severe depression of nervous system that can possibly lead to coma and death

94
Q

Pancreas

A

Regulates Glucose concentrations in blood

95
Q

Pancreas: Structure

A

Composed of 2 Types of Tissues:

  1. Exocrine Gland (Acinar Cells)
  2. Endocrine Glands (Islets of Langerhans)
96
Q

Beta-cells of Langerhans

A
  • produces Insulin

- stimulates uptake of glucose by cells (liver, muscle, adipose)

97
Q

Alpha-cells of Langerhans

A
  • produces Glucagon

- stimulates breakdown of glycogen (storage form of glucose) in liver

98
Q

Adrenal Gland (Adrenal Cortex)

A
  • helps regulate blood pressure

- produces Mineralocorticoids

99
Q

Thyroid Gland

A
  • produces and secretes Calcitonin
  • decreases osteoclast activity (results in more calcium absorbed in bone)
  • increases calcium excretion in urine (more calcium is found in urine)
100
Q

Parathyroid Glands

A
  • produces Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):
  • increases osteoclast activity (bone is destroyed releasing more calcium into blood)
  • decreases calcium excretion, while increasing calcium reabsorption (less calcium is found in urine)
101
Q

What endocrine glands regulate the concentration of Ca2+ in the blood?

A

thyroid and parathyroid glands

102
Q

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) are secreted by and target what tissues?

A

secreted by: thyrotrophs (cells in anterior pituitary)

target tissues: the thyroid gland

103
Q

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)

A

Secreted by: hypothalamus
Target tissue: anterior pituitary
Function: a releasing hormone that stimulates the release of thyrotropin and prolactin from the anterior pituitary.

104
Q

Action of the Thryoid-Stimulating Hormone (aka thyrotropin)

A

stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by thyroid gland

105
Q

Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

A
  • aka Somatocrinin
  • produced in the hypothalamus
  • target tissue: anterior pituitary
  • function: Stimulates secretion of Growth Hormone (hGH)
  • release is stimulated by low blood glucose (hypoglycemia)
106
Q

Which gland secretes Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH), what is the target tissue, and what is its function?

A
  • aka Somatostatin
  • produced in the hypothalamus
  • Target tissue: anterior pituitary
  • Function: Inhibits secretion of Growth Hormone (hGH) and Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
107
Q

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

A
  • aka Somatotropin
  • Secreted by: somatotrophs (cells in anterior pituitary)
  • Target tissues: bone, skeletal muscle, cartilage, liver
108
Q

Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs)

A
  • aka Somatomedins

- a polypeptide hormone produced mainly by the liver in response to the endocrine GH stimulus

109
Q

Action of Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

A

Stimulates liver, muscle, cartilage, bone and other tissues to synthesize and secrete (IGF’s)

110
Q

Action of Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs)

A

Promotes growth of body cells, protein synthesis, tissue repair, lipolysis and elevation of blood glucose concentration

111
Q

Action of the Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

A

stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and release hGH into the bloodstream

112
Q

Action of the Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)

A

inhibits secretion of hGH by somatotrophs (cells in anterior pituitary)

113
Q

Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)

A

produced by: hypothalamus
target cells/tissues: corticotrophs, anterior pituitary
inhibited by: glucocorticoids via negative feedback

114
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A

Secreted by: anterior pituitary

Target tissues: adrenal cortex

115
Q

Actions of the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A

controls the production and secretion of cortisol and other glucocorticoids by the adrenal cortex

116
Q

Actions of the Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)

A

Stimulates secretion of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) and Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

117
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

produced by: adrenal cortex

target cells/tissues:

118
Q

Actions of Glucocorticoids

A
  • regulate metabolism and resistance to stress

- includes cortisol, corticosterone and cortisone.

119
Q

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

A

produced by: hypothalamus
target cells/tissues: anterior pituitary
inhibited by: estrogens in females and by testosterone in males through negative feedback

120
Q

Actions of Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A
  • In females, stimulates secretion of estrogens and progesterone, ovulation and formation of corpus luteum.
  • In males, stimulates testes to produce testosterone.
121
Q

Actions Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

A
  • In females, initiates development of oocytes and induces ovarian secretion of estrogens.
  • In males, stimulates testes to produce sperm
122
Q

Actions of Progesterone and Estrogen

A

together with gonadotropic hormones of anterior pituitary:

  • regulates female reproductive cycle
  • maintains pregnancy
  • prepare mammary glands for lactation
  • development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics
123
Q

Actions of Testosterone

A
  • stimulates descent of testes before birth
  • regulates sperm production
  • promotes development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics
124
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A
  • stimulated by GnRH
  • inhibited by feedback inhibition exerted by estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone
  • secreted by gonadotrophs, anterior pituitary
  • target organs: ovaries and testes
125
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

A
  • stimulated by GnRH
  • inhibited by feedback inhibition exerted by inhibin, estrogens and testosterone.
  • secreted by gonadotrophs, anterior pituitary
  • target organs: ovaries and testes
126
Q

Actions of Inhibin

A

inhibits secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary

127
Q

Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH)

A

Secreted by: hypothalamus
Target tissue: anterior pituitary
Function: Stimulates secretion of Prolactin (PRL)

128
Q

Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)

A

Secreted by: hypothalamus
Target tissue: anterior pituitary
Function: Inhibits secretion of Prolactin (PRL) and Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

129
Q

Actions of Prolactin (PRL)

A

together with other hormones, promotes milk production by mammary glands

130
Q

Adrenal Glands: Structure

A

2 Parts: Adrenal Cortex and Adrenal Medulla

  1. cortex (outer layer): controlled by the pituitary gland
  2. The medulla (core): influences ANS by releasing the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which increase heart activity and blood flow in response to excitement or stress
131
Q

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

A
  1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) from zona glomerulosa cells
  2. Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) from zona fasciculata cells
  3. Androgens (mainly dehydroepiandrosterone, or DHEA) from zona reticularis cells
132
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A
  • stimulated by decreased PIH
  • release enhanced by estrogens, birth control pills, breast-feeding, and dopamine-blocking drugs
  • inhibited by PIH (dopamine)
  • secreted by lactotrophs, anterior pituitary
  • target organ/tissues: mammary glands
133
Q

3 Cardinal Signs of Diabetes Mellitus

A
  1. polyuria
  2. polydipsia
  3. polyphagia
134
Q

polyuria

A
  • huge urine output

- glucose acts as osmotic diuretic

135
Q

polydipsia

A
  • excessive thirst

- from water loss due to polyuria

136
Q

polyphagia

A
  • excessive hunger and food consumption

- cells cannot take up glucose and are “starving”

137
Q

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

A

(Insulin-Dependent)

  • usually early-onset
  • autoimmune disorder that tends to run in families
138
Q

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is caused when

A
  • pancreatic islet of langerhans are attacked and cannot produce insulin
  • requires insulin injections to live
139
Q

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

A

(Insulin-Independent)

  • usually adult-onset and most common type
  • tends to occur in obese, sedentary individuals
140
Q

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is caused when

A
  • cells do not respond to normal levels insulin produced (cells become tolerant called insulin resistance)
  • weight loss, diet and exercise have been shown to control and may even prevent the onset
141
Q

Actions of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

A

controls the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary

142
Q

What factors inhibit release of GHRH?

A

High levels of growth hormone (hGH) in the blood

143
Q

What factors stimulate the release of GHIH?

A

release is stimulated by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)

144
Q

What inhibits ACTH release?

A

Increased cortisol levels

145
Q

What inhibits CRH release?

A

Increased cortisol levels

146
Q

Which gland secretes Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3), what are the target tissues?

A

Secreted by: thyroid

Target tissues: most body cells

147
Q

What is the function of Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)?

A
  • increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate by stimulating glycolysis
  • beta oxidation, and lipolysis
  • increases heat production by increasing the synthesis of Na/K ATPase
  • enhances the actions of the sympathetic NS by up-regulating beta adrenergic receptors
148
Q

Adrenal Medulla is responsible for which stress response system?

A

Short term stress.

149
Q

Which hormone would increase to reduce stress over the long term?

A

Cortisol

150
Q

Aldosterone

A

specific type of mineralocorticoid that helps regulate blood pressure

151
Q

Acinar Cells (Pancreas)

A

produces and secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestines (duodenum)

152
Q

Islets of Langerhans (Pancreas)

A

produces and secretes hormones into the bloodstream (Beta-cells and Alpha-cells of Langerhans)

A&P II (9 decks)

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