Chapter 18 PowerPoint Flashcards
Blood:
What is it part of?
What does it transport?
part of the cardiovascular system
transports materials to and from cells
-oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
-nutrients
-hormones
-immune system components
-waste products
5 functions of blood?
Transportation of dissolved substances
Regulation of pH and ions
Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites
Defense against toxins and pathogens
Stabilization of body temperature
Blood?
liquid connective tissue composed of formed elements—erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets—and a fluid
extracellular matrix called plasma; component of the cardiovascular system
Whole Blood Composition:
____% ____
fluid consisting mostly of H2O, dissolved plasma proteins & other solutes
____% ____ ____: red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) & platelets
equates to the hematocrit lab value
WBCs and platelets are <____%
white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
Whole Blood Composition:
55% plasma
fluid consisting mostly of H2O, dissolved plasma proteins & other solutes
45% formed elements: red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) & platelets
equates to the hematocrit lab value
WBCs and platelets are <1%
white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
Plasma?
in blood, the liquid extracellular matrix composed mostly of water that circulates the formed elements and
dissolved materials throughout the cardiovascular system
Formed elements?
cellular components of blood; that is, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Platelets are not whole cells but rather ____ ____?
cell fragments
Formed elements:
3 types?
What function of each?
Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes
transport oxygen
White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
part of the immune system
Platelets
cell fragments involved in clotting
RBC?
(also, erythrocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that transports oxygen
WBC?
(also, leukocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that provides defense against
disease agents and foreign materials
Platelets?
(also, thrombocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that consists of cell fragments broken off from
megakaryocytes
Thrombocytes AKA?
Platelets
Hemopoiesis/hematopoiesis?
process of producing formed elements by myeloid and lymphoid stem cells
Fractionation?
process of separating whole blood for clinical analysis
(into plasma and formed elements)
4 General Characteristics of Blood:
____ degrees C (____ degrees F) is normal temperature?
high ____?
slightly alkaline pH (____-____)
Blood volume (liters) = ____ percent of body weight (kilograms)
adult male: ____-____ liters
adult female: ____-____ liters
4 General Characteristics of Blood:
38 degrees C (100.4 degrees F) is normal temperature
high viscosity
slightly alkaline pH (7.35–7.45)
Blood volume (liters) 7 percent of body weight (kilograms)
adult male: 5–6 liters
adult female: 4–5 liters
Four general descriptors of blood?
Temperature
Viscosity
pH
Volume
The Composition of Plasma:
makes up ____-____% of blood volume
more than ____% of plasma is water
The Composition of Plasma:
makes up 50–60% of blood volume
more than 90% of plasma is water
What does plasma and IF (interstitial fluids) exchange across cell walls?
H2O
ions
small solutes
Hematopoiesis?
Make up ____% of blood’s formed elements?
the process by which blood cells are replaced which occurs in the bone marrow
Make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements
Totipotent stem cell?
the cells that comprise the zygote (fertilized egg)
Capable of giving rise to all cells of the human body
Pluripotent stem cell?
gives rise to multiple types of cells of the body, and some supporting fetal membranes (more restricted than totipotent cells, though)
Mesenchymal stem cells?
can only give rise to cells and materials of connective tissue
Hematopoietic stem cells?
all formed elements of the blood derive from this cell population
Hematopoietic growth factors?
Defintion?
Function?
4/5 different ones?
chemical signals including erythropoietin, thrombopoietin, colony-stimulating factors,
and interleukins that regulate the differentiation and proliferation of particular blood progenitor cells
drive the formation of the individual formed element populations
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Thrombopoietin
Cytokines
-Conoly stimulating factors (CSFs)
-Interleukins
Erythropoietin (EPO)?
glycoprotein hormone secreted by fibroblasts in the kidneys in response to low O2 levels; promotes the production of erythrocytes; also abused by some athletes
glycoprotein that triggers the bone marrow to produce RBCs; secreted by the kidney in response
to low oxygen levels
Thrombopoietin?
glycoprotein produced by liver and kidneys; triggers the development of platelets from megakaryocytes
hormone secreted by the liver and kidneys that prompts the development of megakaryocytes into
thrombocytes (platelets)
Cytokines?
diverse array of glycoproteins which stimulate the proliferation of progenitor cells
class of proteins that act as autocrine or paracrine signaling molecules; in the cardiovascular system, they
stimulate the proliferation of progenitor cells and help to stimulate both nonspecific and specific resistance to
disease
CSFs?
Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) – e.g., GM-CSF promotes proliferation of granulocytes and monocytes
glycoproteins that trigger the proliferation and differentiation of myeloblasts
into granular leukocytes (basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils)
Interleukins?
Interleukins (ILs): e.g., IL-2 promotes the proliferation of lymphocyte populations
signaling molecules that may function in hemopoiesis, inflammation, and specific immune responses
Lymphoid stem cells?
gives rise to lymphocytes which includes T-cells, B-cells and Natural Killer (NK) cells
Immature progenitor lymphoid cells migrate to other tissues to complete development: e.g., pre-T-cells go to the thymus to complete maturation
type of hemopoietic stem cells that gives rise to lymphocytes, including various T cells, B cells,
and NK cells, all of which function in immunity
Myeloid stem cells?
gives rise to erythrocytes; megakaryocytes; and the myeloblast lineage cells, including monocytes and granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils)
type of hemopoietic stem cell that gives rise to some formed elements, including erythrocytes,
megakaryocytes that produce platelets, and a myeloblast lineage that gives rise to monocytes and three forms of
granular leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils)
____ ____ ____ (____) make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements?
Red blood cells (RBCs)
Make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements
Hemoglobin?
the red pigment that gives whole blood its color
binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
oxygen-carrying compound in erythrocytes
RBC?
(also, erythrocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that transports oxygen
red blood cell count – ______________________?
male: ____-____ million
female: ____-____ million
red blood cell count – the number of RBCs in 1 microliter of whole blood
male: 4.5–6.3 million
female: 4.2–5.5 million
Hematocrit:
Definition?
Male values?
Female values?
Hematocrit – (packed cell volume, PCV) percentage of RBCs in centrifuged whole blood
male: 40–54
female: 37–47
Structure of RBCs?
small and highly specialized discs
thin in middle and thicker at edge
3 Important Effects of RBC Shape on Function?
high surface-to-volume ratio
-quickly absorbs and releases O2
discs form stacks called rouleaux
-Smooth the flow through narrow blood vessels
discs bend and flex entering small capillaries
-7.8-µm RBC passes through 4-µm capillary
Rouleaux?
clumps of red blood cells that look like stacked plates
HB:
Definition?
Male value?
Female value?
Hemoglobin (Hb)
protein molecule that transports respiratory gases
normal hemoglobin (adult male)
14–18 g/dL whole blood
normal hemoglobin (adult female)
12–16 g/dL whole blood
What is hemoglobin’s structure?
complex quaternary structure
4 globular protein subunits
-each with one molecule of heme
-each heme contains one iron ion
associate easily with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin, HbO2)
dissociate easily from oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin)
Heme?
red, iron-containing pigment to which oxygen binds in hemoglobin
Oxyhemoglobin?
HbO2?
molecule of hemoglobin to which oxygen is bound
the same as oxyhemoglobin
Deoxyhemoglobin?
molecule of hemoglobin without an oxygen molecule bound to it
Explain the life span of RBCs?
lack nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes
means no repair and anaerobic metabolism
live about 120 days
EPO:
What is it?
When is it secreted?
Stimulating Hormones-Erythropoietin (EPO)
also called erythropoiesis-stimulating hormone
secreted when oxygen in peripheral tissues is low (hypoxia) due to disease or high altitude
Hypoxia?
state in which oxygen is not available in sufficient amounts at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis
Erythropoietin stimulating hormone?
glycoprotein that triggers the bone marrow to produce RBCs; secreted by the kidney in response to low oxygen levels
5 stages of RBC maturation?
Myeloid stem cell
–>
Proerythroblast
–>
Erythroblasts
–>
Reticulocyte
–>
Mature RBC
Four disorders involving RBC?
Sickle cell disease
Aplastic anemia
Thalassemia
Plycythemia
Sickle cell disease?
(also, sickle cell anemia) inherited blood disorder in which hemoglobin molecules are malformed, leading to the breakdown of RBCs that take on a characteristic sickle shape
Aplastic anemia?
a rare but serious blood condition that occurs when your bone marrow cannot make enough new blood cells for your body to work normally
Thalassemia?
inherited blood disorder in which maturation of RBCs does not proceed normally, leading to abnormal formation of hemoglobin and the destruction of RBCs
Polycythemia?
elevated level of hemoglobin, whether adaptive or pathological
White Blood Cells (WBCs):
also called ____?
do not have ____?
have ____ and other ____?
White Blood Cells (WBCs)
also called leukocytes
do not have hemoglobin
have nuclei and other organelles
Three functions of WBCs?
defend against pathogens
remove toxins and wastes
attack abnormal cells
WBC Circulation and Movement
most WBCs in:
-____ ____ ____
-____ ____ ____
small numbers in blood
-____-____ per microliter
WBC Circulation and Movement
most WBCs in:
-connective tissue proper
-lymphatic system organs
small numbers in blood
-5000 - 10,000 per microliter
4 Characteristics of Circulating WBCs?
Can migrate out of bloodstream
Have amoeboid movement
Attracted to chemical stimuli (positive chemotaxis)
Some are phagocytic
-neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes
Positive chemotaxis?
process in which a cell is attracted to move in the direction of chemical stimuli
5 types of WBCs?
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Neutrophils:
AKA?
% of WBCs?
Appearance/function of cytoplasm?
also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
50–70% of circulating WBCs
pale cytoplasm granules with:
-lysosomal enzymes
-bactericides (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide)
Neutrophil action?
very active, first to attack bacteria
engulf and digest pathogens
Degranulation
-removing granules from cytoplasm
-defensins (peptides from lysosomes) attack pathogen membranes
release prostaglandins and leukotrienes
form pus
Defensins?
antimicrobial proteins released from neutrophils and macrophages that create openings in the plasma
membranes to kill cells
Eosinophils (____)
____-____% of circulating WBCs
attack large ____ (eg., intestinal worms)
excrete ____ compounds
-nitric oxide (NO)
-cytotoxic enzymes
are sensitive to ____
control ____ with enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells
Eosinophils (Acidophils)
2–4% of circulating WBCs
attack large parasites (eg., intestinal worms)
excrete toxic compounds
-nitric oxide (NO)
-cytotoxic enzymes
are sensitive to allergens
control inflammation with enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells
Basophils
less than ____% of circulating WBCs
accumulate in ____ tissue
release ____?
-dilates blood vessels
release ____?
-prevents blood clotting
Basophils
less than 1% of circulating WBCs
accumulate in damaged tissue
release histamine
-dilates blood vessels
release heparin
-prevents blood clotting
Monocytes
____-____% of circulating WBCs
are large and ____?
enter peripheral tissues and become ____?
____ large particles and pathogens
secrete substances that attract ____ ____ ____ and ____ to injured area
Monocytes
2–8% of circulating WBCs
are large and spherical
enter peripheral tissues and become macrophages
engulf large particles and pathogens
secrete substances that attract immune system cells and fibroblasts to injured area
Lymphocytes
____-____% of circulating WBCs
are ____than RBCs
migrate in and out of ____?
mostly in ____ ____ and ____ ____?
are part of the body’s ____ defense system
Lymphocytes
20–40% of circulating WBCs
are larger than RBCs
migrate in and out of blood
mostly in connective tissues and lymphoid organs
are part of the body’s specific defense system
Three classes of lymphocytes?
T cells
B cells
Natural killer (NK) cells
T cells?
cell-mediated immunity
attack foreign cells directly
B cells?
Humoral immunity
Differentiate into plasma cells
Synthesize antibodies
Natural killer (NK) cells?
detect and destroy abnormal tissue cells (cancers)
Differential count?
measures the percentages of each type of leukocyte present
The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles
detects changes in WBC populations
infections, inflammation, and allergic reactions
Neutrophils?
granulocytes that stain with a neutral dye and are the most numerous of the leukocytes; especially active
against bacteria
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes?
having a lobed nucleus, as seen in some leukocytes
Degranulation?
a cellular process that releases antimicrobial cytotoxic or other molecules from secretory vesicles called granules found inside some cells
Defensins?
antimicrobial proteins released from neutrophils and macrophages that create openings in the plasma
membranes to kill cells
Eosinophils?
granulocytes that stain with eosin; they release antihistamines and are especially active against parasitic
worms
Basophils?
granulocytes that stain with a basic (alkaline) stain and store histamine and heparin
Monocytes?
agranular leukocytes of the myeloid stem cell line that circulate in the bloodstream; tissue monocytes are
macrophages
Lymphocytes?
agranular leukocytes of the lymphoid stem cell line, many of which function in specific immunity
T-cells?
lymphocytes that provide cellular-level immunity by physically attacking foreign or
diseased cells
B-cells?
lymphocytes that defend the body against specific pathogens and thereby provide
specific immunity
Plasma cells?
A type of immune cell that makes large amounts of a specific antibody
Natural killer (NK) cells?
cytotoxic lymphocytes capable of recognizing cells that do not express “self” proteins on
their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers; provide generalized, nonspecific immunity
WBC disorders:
____
abnormally low WBC count
____
abnormally high WBC count
____
extremely high WBC count
WBC disorders:
Leukopenia
abnormally low WBC count
Leukocytosis
abnormally high WBC count
Leukemia
extremely high WBC count
Leukopenia?
below-normal production of leukocytes
Leukocytosis?
excessive leukocyte proliferation
Leukemia?
cancer involving leukocytes
WBC Production:
all blood cells originate from ____ which produce progenitor stem cells?
____ stem cells
-produce all WBCs except lymphocytes
____ stem cells
-lymphopoiesis – the production of lymphocytes
WBC Production:
all blood cells originate from hemocytoblasts which produce progenitor stem cells
myeloid stem cells
-produce all WBCs except lymphocytes
lymphoid stem cells
-lymphopoiesis – the production of lymphocytes
Lymphopoiesis?
the production of lymphocytes
WBCs, except monocytes
develop in ____ ____?
Monocytes
develop into ____ in ____ tissues?
WBCs, except monocytes
develop in bone marrow
Monocytes
develop into macrophages in peripheral tissues
Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)?
Hormones that regulate blood cell populations
M-CSF?
stimulates monocyte production
G-CSF?
stimulates production of granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils)
GM-CSF?
stimulates granulocyte and monocyte production
Multi-CSF?
accelerates production of granulocytes, monocytes, platelets, and RBCs
Platelets
____ ____ involved in human ____ system
nonmammalian vertebrates have ____ (nucleated cells)
circulate for ____-____ days
removed by ____?
____ are reserved for emergencies
Platelets
cell fragments involved in human clotting system
nonmammalian vertebrates have thrombocytes (nucleated cells)
circulate for 9–12 days
removed by spleen
2/3 are reserved for emergencies
Three functions of platelets?
Release important clotting chemicals
Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls
Reduce size of a break in vessel wall
Platelet Production
-also called ____
-occurs in ____ ____
____
-giant cells in bone marrow
-manufacture platelets from cytoplasm
Platelet Production
-also called thrombocytopoiesis
-occurs in bone marrow
Megakaryocytes
-giant cells in bone marrow
-manufacture platelets from cytoplasm
Three hormonal controls of platelet production?
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
Interleukin-6 (IL-6)
Multi-CSF
Platelet Counts
____ to ____ per microliter
____
abnormally low platelet count
____
abnormally high platelet count
Platelet Counts
150,000 to 500,000 per microliter
thrombocytopenia
abnormally low platelet count
Thrombocytosis
abnormally high platelet count
Thrombocytopenia?
condition in which there are too few platelets, resulting in abnormal bleeding (hemophilia)
Thrombocytosis?
condition in which there are too many platelets, resulting in abnormal clotting (thrombosis)
Hemostasis?
the cessation of bleeding
Three phases of hemostasis?
Vascular phase
Platelet phase
Coagulation phase
Vascular phase?
vascular spasm-initial step in hemostasis, in which the smooth muscle in the walls of the ruptured or damaged blood vessel contracts
Platelet phase?
accumulation and adhesion of platelets at the site of blood vessel injury
Coagulation phase?
formation of a blood clot; part of the process of hemostasis
5 Factors That Limit the Growth of the Platelet Plug?
Prostacyclin, released by endothelial cells, inhibits platelet aggregation
Inhibitory compounds released by other WBCs
Circulating enzymes break down ADP
Negative (inhibitory) feedback from serotonin
Development of blood clot isolates area
Prostacyclin?
a member of the prostaglandin family of bioactive lipids. Its best-characterized role is in the cardiovascular system, where it is released by vascular endothelial cells, serving as a potent vasodilator and inhibitor of platelet aggregation.
The ____ Phase:
begins ____ seconds or more after the injury
blood clotting (____)?
Cascade reactions
chain reactions of enzymes and proenzymes
form three pathways
convert circulating fibrinogen into ____ ____?
The Coagulation Phase:
begins 30 seconds or more after the injury
blood clotting (coagulation)
Cascade reactions
chain reactions of enzymes and proenzymes
form three pathways
convert circulating fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin
Coagulation
formation of a blood clot; part of the process of hemostasis
Proenzymes?
a biologically inactive substance which is metabolized into an enzyme
Two forms of blood coagulation?
Extrinsic clotting
Intrinsic clotting
Extrinsic clotting?
from damaged tissue
prothrombin time (PT) test
initial coagulation pathway that begins with tissue damage and results in the activation of the common pathway
Intrinsic clotting?
blood comes into contact with a foreign surface
partial thromboplastin time (PTT) test
initial coagulation pathway that begins with vascular damage or contact with foreign substances, and results in the activation of the common pathway
Describe the extrinsic pathway?
begins in the vessel wall
outside bloodstream
damaged cells release tissue factor (TF)
TF + other compounds = enzyme complex
activates Factor X
initial coagulation pathway that begins with tissue damage and results in the activation of the common pathway
Describe the intrinsic pathway?
begins with circulating proenzymes
within bloodstream
activation of enzymes by collagen
platelets release factors (e.g., PF-3)
series of reactions activates Factor X
initial coagulation pathway that begins with vascular damage or contact with foreign substances, and results in the activation of the common pathway
Tissue factor?
the primary cellular initiator of blood coagulation
PF-3?
platelets release factors (plays a role in coagulation)
Describe the common pathway?
where intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge
forms complex prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to thrombin
thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
final coagulation pathway activated either by the intrinsic or the extrinsic pathway, and ending in the formation of a blood clot
Vitamin and mineral important in blood clotting?
calcium ions (Ca2+) and vitamin K are both essential to the clotting process
anticoagulant?
substance such as heparin that opposes coagulation
6 types of anticoagulants?
Antithrombin-III
Alpha-2-macroglobulin
Heparin
Aspirin
Protein C (activated by thrombomodulin)
Prostacyclin
Antithrombin?
anticoagulant that inactivates factor X and opposes the conversion of prothrombin (factor II) into thrombin in the common pathway
Heparin?
short-acting anticoagulant stored in mast cells and released when tissues are injured, opposes prothrombin
What are surface antigens?
are cell surface proteins that identify cells to immune system
normal cells are ignored and foreign cells attacked
Blood Types:
are ____ determined
by presence or absence of RBC surface antigens ____, ____, ____ or (____)
Blood Types:
are genetically determined
by presence or absence of RBC surface antigens A, B, Rh (or D)
Four blood types?
A (surface antigen A)
B (surface antigen B)
AB (antigens A and B)
O (neither A nor B)
What are the four blood plasma antibodies?
Type A
type B antibodies
Type B
type A antibodies
Type O
both A and B antibodies
Type AB
neither A nor B antibodies
What are agglutinogens?
Agglutinogens:
antigens on surface of RBCs
screened by immune system
plasma antibodies attack and agglutinate (clump) foreign antigens
Agglutinations?
clustering of cells into masses linked by antibodies
The Rh Factor:
also called ____ antigen
either ____ ____ (____) or ____ ____ (____)
only sensitized ____ blood has anti-Rh antibodies
problematic for Rh (____) mothers who carry Rh (____) babies
The Rh Factor:
also called D antigen
either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-)
only sensitized Rh- blood has anti-Rh antibodies
problematic for Rh (-) mothers who carry Rh (+) babies
