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Z A&P II Exam I > Chapter 18 PowerPoint > Flashcards

Chapter 18 PowerPoint Flashcards

1
Q

Blood:
What is it part of?
What does it transport?

A

part of the cardiovascular system
transports materials to and from cells

-oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
-nutrients
-hormones
-immune system components
-waste products

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2
Q

5 functions of blood?

A

Transportation of dissolved substances

Regulation of pH and ions

Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites

Defense against toxins and pathogens

Stabilization of body temperature

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3
Q

Blood?

A

liquid connective tissue composed of formed elements—erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets—and a fluid
extracellular matrix called plasma; component of the cardiovascular system

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4
Q

Whole Blood Composition:

____% ____
fluid consisting mostly of H2O, dissolved plasma proteins & other solutes

____% ____ ____: red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) & platelets
equates to the hematocrit lab value

WBCs and platelets are <____%
white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes

A

Whole Blood Composition:

55% plasma
fluid consisting mostly of H2O, dissolved plasma proteins & other solutes

45% formed elements: red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) & platelets
equates to the hematocrit lab value

WBCs and platelets are <1%
white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes

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5
Q

Plasma?

A

in blood, the liquid extracellular matrix composed mostly of water that circulates the formed elements and
dissolved materials throughout the cardiovascular system

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6
Q

Formed elements?

A

cellular components of blood; that is, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

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7
Q

Platelets are not whole cells but rather ____ ____?

A

cell fragments

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8
Q

Formed elements:
3 types?
What function of each?

A

Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes
transport oxygen

White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
part of the immune system

Platelets
cell fragments involved in clotting

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9
Q

RBC?

A

(also, erythrocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that transports oxygen

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10
Q

WBC?

A

(also, leukocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that provides defense against
disease agents and foreign materials

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11
Q

Platelets?

A

(also, thrombocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that consists of cell fragments broken off from
megakaryocytes

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12
Q

Thrombocytes AKA?

A

Platelets

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13
Q

Hemopoiesis/hematopoiesis?

A

process of producing formed elements by myeloid and lymphoid stem cells

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14
Q

Fractionation?

A

process of separating whole blood for clinical analysis
(into plasma and formed elements)

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15
Q

4 General Characteristics of Blood:

____ degrees C (____ degrees F) is normal temperature?

high ____?

slightly alkaline pH (____-____)

Blood volume (liters) = ____ percent of body weight (kilograms)
adult male: ____-____ liters
adult female: ____-____ liters

A

4 General Characteristics of Blood:

38 degrees C (100.4 degrees F) is normal temperature

high viscosity

slightly alkaline pH (7.35–7.45)

Blood volume (liters)  7 percent of body weight (kilograms)
adult male: 5–6 liters
adult female: 4–5 liters

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16
Q

Four general descriptors of blood?

A

Temperature
Viscosity
pH
Volume

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17
Q

The Composition of Plasma:

makes up ____-____% of blood volume
more than ____% of plasma is water

A

The Composition of Plasma:

makes up 50–60% of blood volume
more than 90% of plasma is water

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18
Q

What does plasma and IF (interstitial fluids) exchange across cell walls?

A

H2O
ions
small solutes

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19
Q

Hematopoiesis?

Make up ____% of blood’s formed elements?

A

the process by which blood cells are replaced which occurs in the bone marrow

Make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements

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20
Q

Totipotent stem cell?

A

the cells that comprise the zygote (fertilized egg)

Capable of giving rise to all cells of the human body

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21
Q

Pluripotent stem cell?

A

gives rise to multiple types of cells of the body, and some supporting fetal membranes (more restricted than totipotent cells, though)

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22
Q

Mesenchymal stem cells?

A

can only give rise to cells and materials of connective tissue

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23
Q

Hematopoietic stem cells?

A

all formed elements of the blood derive from this cell population

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24
Q

Hematopoietic growth factors?
Defintion?
Function?
4/5 different ones?

A

chemical signals including erythropoietin, thrombopoietin, colony-stimulating factors,
and interleukins that regulate the differentiation and proliferation of particular blood progenitor cells

drive the formation of the individual formed element populations

Erythropoietin (EPO)
Thrombopoietin
Cytokines
-Conoly stimulating factors (CSFs)
-Interleukins

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25
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)?

A

glycoprotein hormone secreted by fibroblasts in the kidneys in response to low O2 levels; promotes the production of erythrocytes; also abused by some athletes

glycoprotein that triggers the bone marrow to produce RBCs; secreted by the kidney in response
to low oxygen levels

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26
Q

Thrombopoietin?

A

glycoprotein produced by liver and kidneys; triggers the development of platelets from megakaryocytes

hormone secreted by the liver and kidneys that prompts the development of megakaryocytes into
thrombocytes (platelets)

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27
Q

Cytokines?

A

diverse array of glycoproteins which stimulate the proliferation of progenitor cells

class of proteins that act as autocrine or paracrine signaling molecules; in the cardiovascular system, they
stimulate the proliferation of progenitor cells and help to stimulate both nonspecific and specific resistance to
disease

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28
Q

CSFs?

A

Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) – e.g., GM-CSF promotes proliferation of granulocytes and monocytes

glycoproteins that trigger the proliferation and differentiation of myeloblasts
into granular leukocytes (basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils)

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29
Q

Interleukins?

A

Interleukins (ILs): e.g., IL-2 promotes the proliferation of lymphocyte populations

signaling molecules that may function in hemopoiesis, inflammation, and specific immune responses

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30
Q

Lymphoid stem cells?

A

gives rise to lymphocytes which includes T-cells, B-cells and Natural Killer (NK) cells

Immature progenitor lymphoid cells migrate to other tissues to complete development: e.g., pre-T-cells go to the thymus to complete maturation

type of hemopoietic stem cells that gives rise to lymphocytes, including various T cells, B cells,
and NK cells, all of which function in immunity

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31
Q

Myeloid stem cells?

A

gives rise to erythrocytes; megakaryocytes; and the myeloblast lineage cells, including monocytes and granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils)

type of hemopoietic stem cell that gives rise to some formed elements, including erythrocytes,
megakaryocytes that produce platelets, and a myeloblast lineage that gives rise to monocytes and three forms of
granular leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils)

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32
Q

____ ____ ____ (____) make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements?

A

Red blood cells (RBCs)
Make up 99.9% of blood’s formed elements

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33
Q

Hemoglobin?

A

the red pigment that gives whole blood its color

binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

oxygen-carrying compound in erythrocytes

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34
Q

RBC?

A

(also, erythrocytes) one of the formed elements of blood that transports oxygen

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35
Q

red blood cell count – ______________________?
male: ____-____ million
female: ____-____ million

A

red blood cell count – the number of RBCs in 1 microliter of whole blood

male: 4.5–6.3 million
female: 4.2–5.5 million

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36
Q

Hematocrit:
Definition?
Male values?
Female values?

A

Hematocrit – (packed cell volume, PCV) percentage of RBCs in centrifuged whole blood

male: 40–54
female: 37–47

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37
Q

Structure of RBCs?

A

small and highly specialized discs
thin in middle and thicker at edge

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38
Q

3 Important Effects of RBC Shape on Function?

A

high surface-to-volume ratio
-quickly absorbs and releases O2

discs form stacks called rouleaux
-Smooth the flow through narrow blood vessels

discs bend and flex entering small capillaries
-7.8-µm RBC passes through 4-µm capillary

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39
Q

Rouleaux?

A

clumps of red blood cells that look like stacked plates

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40
Q

HB:
Definition?
Male value?
Female value?

A

Hemoglobin (Hb)
protein molecule that transports respiratory gases

normal hemoglobin (adult male)
14–18 g/dL whole blood

normal hemoglobin (adult female)
12–16 g/dL whole blood

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41
Q

What is hemoglobin’s structure?

A

complex quaternary structure

4 globular protein subunits
-each with one molecule of heme
-each heme contains one iron ion

associate easily with oxygen (oxyhemoglobin, HbO2)
dissociate easily from oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin)

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42
Q

Heme?

A

red, iron-containing pigment to which oxygen binds in hemoglobin

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43
Q

Oxyhemoglobin?

HbO2?

A

molecule of hemoglobin to which oxygen is bound

the same as oxyhemoglobin

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44
Q

Deoxyhemoglobin?

A

molecule of hemoglobin without an oxygen molecule bound to it

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45
Q

Explain the life span of RBCs?

A

lack nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes
means no repair and anaerobic metabolism

live about 120 days

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46
Q

EPO:
What is it?
When is it secreted?

A

Stimulating Hormones-Erythropoietin (EPO)
also called erythropoiesis-stimulating hormone

secreted when oxygen in peripheral tissues is low (hypoxia) due to disease or high altitude

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47
Q

Hypoxia?

A

state in which oxygen is not available in sufficient amounts at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis

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48
Q

Erythropoietin stimulating hormone?

A

glycoprotein that triggers the bone marrow to produce RBCs; secreted by the kidney in response to low oxygen levels

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49
Q

5 stages of RBC maturation?

A

Myeloid stem cell
–>
Proerythroblast
–>
Erythroblasts
–>
Reticulocyte
–>
Mature RBC

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50
Q

Four disorders involving RBC?

A

Sickle cell disease
Aplastic anemia
Thalassemia
Plycythemia

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51
Q

Sickle cell disease?

A

(also, sickle cell anemia) inherited blood disorder in which hemoglobin molecules are malformed, leading to the breakdown of RBCs that take on a characteristic sickle shape

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52
Q

Aplastic anemia?

A

a rare but serious blood condition that occurs when your bone marrow cannot make enough new blood cells for your body to work normally

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53
Q

Thalassemia?

A

inherited blood disorder in which maturation of RBCs does not proceed normally, leading to abnormal formation of hemoglobin and the destruction of RBCs

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54
Q

Polycythemia?

A

elevated level of hemoglobin, whether adaptive or pathological

55
Q

White Blood Cells (WBCs):

also called ____?

do not have ____?

have ____ and other ____?

A

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

also called leukocytes

do not have hemoglobin

have nuclei and other organelles

56
Q

Three functions of WBCs?

A

defend against pathogens
remove toxins and wastes
attack abnormal cells

57
Q

WBC Circulation and Movement
most WBCs in:
-____ ____ ____
-____ ____ ____

small numbers in blood
-____-____ per microliter

A

WBC Circulation and Movement
most WBCs in:
-connective tissue proper
-lymphatic system organs

small numbers in blood
-5000 - 10,000 per microliter

58
Q

4 Characteristics of Circulating WBCs?

A

Can migrate out of bloodstream

Have amoeboid movement

Attracted to chemical stimuli (positive chemotaxis)

Some are phagocytic
-neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes

59
Q

Positive chemotaxis?

A

process in which a cell is attracted to move in the direction of chemical stimuli

60
Q

5 types of WBCs?

A

Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes

61
Q

Neutrophils:
AKA?
% of WBCs?
Appearance/function of cytoplasm?

A

also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes

50–70% of circulating WBCs

pale cytoplasm granules with:
-lysosomal enzymes
-bactericides (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide)

62
Q

Neutrophil action?

A

very active, first to attack bacteria

engulf and digest pathogens

Degranulation
-removing granules from cytoplasm
-defensins (peptides from lysosomes) attack pathogen membranes

release prostaglandins and leukotrienes

form pus

63
Q

Defensins?

A

antimicrobial proteins released from neutrophils and macrophages that create openings in the plasma
membranes to kill cells

64
Q

Eosinophils (____)

____-____% of circulating WBCs

attack large ____ (eg., intestinal worms)

excrete ____ compounds
-nitric oxide (NO)
-cytotoxic enzymes

are sensitive to ____

control ____ with enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells

A

Eosinophils (Acidophils)

2–4% of circulating WBCs

attack large parasites (eg., intestinal worms)

excrete toxic compounds
-nitric oxide (NO)
-cytotoxic enzymes

are sensitive to allergens

control inflammation with enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells

65
Q

Basophils

less than ____% of circulating WBCs

accumulate in ____ tissue

release ____?
-dilates blood vessels
release ____?
-prevents blood clotting

A

Basophils

less than 1% of circulating WBCs

accumulate in damaged tissue

release histamine
-dilates blood vessels
release heparin
-prevents blood clotting

66
Q

Monocytes

____-____% of circulating WBCs

are large and ____?

enter peripheral tissues and become ____?

____ large particles and pathogens

secrete substances that attract ____ ____ ____ and ____ to injured area

A

Monocytes

2–8% of circulating WBCs

are large and spherical

enter peripheral tissues and become macrophages

engulf large particles and pathogens

secrete substances that attract immune system cells and fibroblasts to injured area

67
Q

Lymphocytes

____-____% of circulating WBCs

are ____than RBCs

migrate in and out of ____?

mostly in ____ ____ and ____ ____?

are part of the body’s ____ defense system

A

Lymphocytes

20–40% of circulating WBCs

are larger than RBCs

migrate in and out of blood

mostly in connective tissues and lymphoid organs

are part of the body’s specific defense system

68
Q

Three classes of lymphocytes?

A

T cells
B cells
Natural killer (NK) cells

69
Q

T cells?

A

cell-mediated immunity
attack foreign cells directly

70
Q

B cells?

A

Humoral immunity
Differentiate into plasma cells
Synthesize antibodies

71
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells?

A

detect and destroy abnormal tissue cells (cancers)

72
Q

Differential count?

A

measures the percentages of each type of leukocyte present

The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles
detects changes in WBC populations
infections, inflammation, and allergic reactions

73
Q

Neutrophils?

A

granulocytes that stain with a neutral dye and are the most numerous of the leukocytes; especially active
against bacteria

74
Q

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes?

A

having a lobed nucleus, as seen in some leukocytes

75
Q

Degranulation?

A

a cellular process that releases antimicrobial cytotoxic or other molecules from secretory vesicles called granules found inside some cells

76
Q

Defensins?

A

antimicrobial proteins released from neutrophils and macrophages that create openings in the plasma
membranes to kill cells

77
Q

Eosinophils?

A

granulocytes that stain with eosin; they release antihistamines and are especially active against parasitic
worms

78
Q

Basophils?

A

granulocytes that stain with a basic (alkaline) stain and store histamine and heparin

79
Q

Monocytes?

A

agranular leukocytes of the myeloid stem cell line that circulate in the bloodstream; tissue monocytes are
macrophages

80
Q

Lymphocytes?

A

agranular leukocytes of the lymphoid stem cell line, many of which function in specific immunity

81
Q

T-cells?

A

lymphocytes that provide cellular-level immunity by physically attacking foreign or
diseased cells

82
Q

B-cells?

A

lymphocytes that defend the body against specific pathogens and thereby provide
specific immunity

83
Q

Plasma cells?

A

A type of immune cell that makes large amounts of a specific antibody

84
Q

Natural killer (NK) cells?

A

cytotoxic lymphocytes capable of recognizing cells that do not express “self” proteins on
their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers; provide generalized, nonspecific immunity

85
Q

WBC disorders:

____
abnormally low WBC count

____
abnormally high WBC count

____
extremely high WBC count

A

WBC disorders:

Leukopenia
abnormally low WBC count

Leukocytosis
abnormally high WBC count

Leukemia
extremely high WBC count

86
Q

Leukopenia?

A

below-normal production of leukocytes

87
Q

Leukocytosis?

A

excessive leukocyte proliferation

88
Q

Leukemia?

A

cancer involving leukocytes

89
Q

WBC Production:

all blood cells originate from ____ which produce progenitor stem cells?

____ stem cells
-produce all WBCs except lymphocytes

____ stem cells
-lymphopoiesis – the production of lymphocytes

A

WBC Production:

all blood cells originate from hemocytoblasts which produce progenitor stem cells

myeloid stem cells
-produce all WBCs except lymphocytes

lymphoid stem cells
-lymphopoiesis – the production of lymphocytes

90
Q

Lymphopoiesis?

A

the production of lymphocytes

91
Q

WBCs, except monocytes
develop in ____ ____?

Monocytes
develop into ____ in ____ tissues?

A

WBCs, except monocytes
develop in bone marrow

Monocytes
develop into macrophages in peripheral tissues

92
Q

Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)?

A

Hormones that regulate blood cell populations

93
Q

M-CSF?

A

stimulates monocyte production

94
Q

G-CSF?

A

stimulates production of granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils)

95
Q

GM-CSF?

A

stimulates granulocyte and monocyte production

96
Q

Multi-CSF?

A

accelerates production of granulocytes, monocytes, platelets, and RBCs

97
Q

Platelets

____ ____ involved in human ____ system

nonmammalian vertebrates have ____ (nucleated cells)

circulate for ____-____ days

removed by ____?

____ are reserved for emergencies

A

Platelets

cell fragments involved in human clotting system

nonmammalian vertebrates have thrombocytes (nucleated cells)

circulate for 9–12 days

removed by spleen

2/3 are reserved for emergencies

98
Q

Three functions of platelets?

A

Release important clotting chemicals
Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls
Reduce size of a break in vessel wall

99
Q

Platelet Production
-also called ____
-occurs in ____ ____

____
-giant cells in bone marrow
-manufacture platelets from cytoplasm

A

Platelet Production
-also called thrombocytopoiesis
-occurs in bone marrow

Megakaryocytes
-giant cells in bone marrow
-manufacture platelets from cytoplasm

100
Q

Three hormonal controls of platelet production?

A

Thrombopoietin (TPO)
Interleukin-6 (IL-6)
Multi-CSF

101
Q

Platelet Counts
____ to ____ per microliter

____
abnormally low platelet count

____
abnormally high platelet count

A

Platelet Counts
150,000 to 500,000 per microliter

thrombocytopenia
abnormally low platelet count

Thrombocytosis
abnormally high platelet count

102
Q

Thrombocytopenia?

A

condition in which there are too few platelets, resulting in abnormal bleeding (hemophilia)

103
Q

Thrombocytosis?

A

condition in which there are too many platelets, resulting in abnormal clotting (thrombosis)

104
Q

Hemostasis?

A

the cessation of bleeding

105
Q

Three phases of hemostasis?

A

Vascular phase
Platelet phase
Coagulation phase

106
Q

Vascular phase?

A

vascular spasm-initial step in hemostasis, in which the smooth muscle in the walls of the ruptured or damaged blood vessel contracts

107
Q

Platelet phase?

A

accumulation and adhesion of platelets at the site of blood vessel injury

108
Q

Coagulation phase?

A

formation of a blood clot; part of the process of hemostasis

109
Q

5 Factors That Limit the Growth of the Platelet Plug?

A

Prostacyclin, released by endothelial cells, inhibits platelet aggregation

Inhibitory compounds released by other WBCs

Circulating enzymes break down ADP

Negative (inhibitory) feedback from serotonin

Development of blood clot isolates area

110
Q

Prostacyclin?

A

a member of the prostaglandin family of bioactive lipids. Its best-characterized role is in the cardiovascular system, where it is released by vascular endothelial cells, serving as a potent vasodilator and inhibitor of platelet aggregation.

111
Q

The ____ Phase:

begins ____ seconds or more after the injury
blood clotting (____)?

Cascade reactions
chain reactions of enzymes and proenzymes
form three pathways
convert circulating fibrinogen into ____ ____?

A

The Coagulation Phase:

begins 30 seconds or more after the injury
blood clotting (coagulation)

Cascade reactions
chain reactions of enzymes and proenzymes
form three pathways
convert circulating fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin

112
Q

Coagulation

A

formation of a blood clot; part of the process of hemostasis

113
Q

Proenzymes?

A

a biologically inactive substance which is metabolized into an enzyme

114
Q

Two forms of blood coagulation?

A

Extrinsic clotting
Intrinsic clotting

115
Q

Extrinsic clotting?

A

from damaged tissue
prothrombin time (PT) test

initial coagulation pathway that begins with tissue damage and results in the activation of the common pathway

116
Q

Intrinsic clotting?

A

blood comes into contact with a foreign surface
partial thromboplastin time (PTT) test

initial coagulation pathway that begins with vascular damage or contact with foreign substances, and results in the activation of the common pathway

117
Q

Describe the extrinsic pathway?

A

begins in the vessel wall
outside bloodstream
damaged cells release tissue factor (TF)
TF + other compounds = enzyme complex
activates Factor X

initial coagulation pathway that begins with tissue damage and results in the activation of the common pathway

118
Q

Describe the intrinsic pathway?

A

begins with circulating proenzymes
within bloodstream
activation of enzymes by collagen
platelets release factors (e.g., PF-3)
series of reactions activates Factor X

initial coagulation pathway that begins with vascular damage or contact with foreign substances, and results in the activation of the common pathway

119
Q

Tissue factor?

A

the primary cellular initiator of blood coagulation

120
Q

PF-3?

A

platelets release factors (plays a role in coagulation)

121
Q

Describe the common pathway?

A

where intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge
forms complex prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to thrombin
thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin

final coagulation pathway activated either by the intrinsic or the extrinsic pathway, and ending in the formation of a blood clot

122
Q

Vitamin and mineral important in blood clotting?

A

calcium ions (Ca2+) and vitamin K are both essential to the clotting process

123
Q

anticoagulant?

A

substance such as heparin that opposes coagulation

124
Q

6 types of anticoagulants?

A

Antithrombin-III
Alpha-2-macroglobulin
Heparin
Aspirin
Protein C (activated by thrombomodulin)
Prostacyclin

125
Q

Antithrombin?

A

anticoagulant that inactivates factor X and opposes the conversion of prothrombin (factor II) into thrombin in the common pathway

126
Q

Heparin?

A

short-acting anticoagulant stored in mast cells and released when tissues are injured, opposes prothrombin

127
Q

What are surface antigens?

A

are cell surface proteins that identify cells to immune system

normal cells are ignored and foreign cells attacked

128
Q

Blood Types:
are ____ determined
by presence or absence of RBC surface antigens ____, ____, ____ or (____)

A

Blood Types:
are genetically determined
by presence or absence of RBC surface antigens A, B, Rh (or D)

129
Q

Four blood types?

A

A (surface antigen A)
B (surface antigen B)
AB (antigens A and B)
O (neither A nor B)

130
Q

What are the four blood plasma antibodies?

A

Type A
type B antibodies

Type B
type A antibodies

Type O
both A and B antibodies

Type AB
neither A nor B antibodies

131
Q

What are agglutinogens?

A

Agglutinogens:

antigens on surface of RBCs

screened by immune system

plasma antibodies attack and agglutinate (clump) foreign antigens

132
Q

Agglutinations?

A

clustering of cells into masses linked by antibodies

133
Q

The Rh Factor:

also called ____ antigen

either ____ ____ (____) or ____ ____ (____)

only sensitized ____ blood has anti-Rh antibodies

problematic for Rh (____) mothers who carry Rh (____) babies

A

The Rh Factor:

also called D antigen

either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-)

only sensitized Rh- blood has anti-Rh antibodies

problematic for Rh (-) mothers who carry Rh (+) babies

Z A&P II Exam I (4 decks)

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