Chapter 18 - Learning problems Flashcards
1
Q
What are the two scientific reasons learning problems are considered mental health disorders?
A
- Learning disabilities share an underlying neurobiological basis with other forms of mental illness.
- Learning problems are linked with other forms of psychopathology such as attention deficit, depression, and anxiety.
These interconnections can exacerbate behavioral and emotional difficulties.
2
Q
What happens when learning problems co-occur with other forms of psychopathology?
A
The learning problems often exacerbate behavioral and emotional difficulties, making it harder for teachers to help.
This dynamic creates a challenging environment for both students and educators.
3
Q
What is the focus of the chapter described in the content?
A
The chapter focuses on terminology, case examples, diagnostic categories, prevalence, cultural and gender issues, causes, family and peer factors, and treatment issues.
It emphasizes the role of psychologists in addressing learning problems.
4
Q
What is the operational definition issue in diagnosing learning disabilities?
A
An operational definition evoking brain pathology is not useful in clinical diagnosis because the underlying brain pathology cannot be identified in most individuals.
This complicates the diagnostic process.
5
Q
What term is used in DSM-5 to refer to learning disabilities?
A
Specific learning disorder
It includes specifiers for the academic area affected (reading, writing, or mathematics) and severity.
6
Q
Why have terms like ‘reading disorder’ not garnered widespread appeal?
A
They are considered too simplistic and raise questions about including basic school-subject material in a taxonomy of mental disorders.
This debate reflects ongoing discussions about the classification of learning issues.
7
Q
What is the most common term for learning problems in schools globally?
A
Learning disabilities
This term applies to specific learning problems not best explained by intellectual disability.
8
Q
How is the term ‘learning disabilities’ used differently in the UK?
A
It is often used synonymously with intellectual disabilities.
This can lead to misunderstandings in educational contexts.
9
Q
What are the classic terms still widely used in neuropsychology and special education?
A
Dyslexia and dyscalculia
These terms indicate difficulty in reading and mathematics, respectively.
10
Q
Fill in the blank: The term ‘dyslexia’ is derived from two _______ words that indicate difficulty in reading.
A
Greek
This highlights the historical context of the terminology used in the field.
11
Q
True or False: The assessment and remediation of academic skills are covered in this book.
A
False
The book refers readers to other textbooks for this topic.
12
Q
What is the title of Ruth Rendell’s novel that depicts the effects of learning disabilities?
A
A Judgment in Stone
13
Q
In which year was the film La Cérémonie released?
A
1995
14
Q
What happens to Eunice in the story of A Judgment in Stone?
A
She is mistreated by her parents and eventually kills her employers.
15
Q
Why is Eunice convicted of a crime?
A
She cannot read a note which is used as evidence against her.
16
Q
What is the name of the protagonist in the film Taare Zameen Par?
A
Ishaan
17
Q
Which prestigious award was Taare Zameen Par nominated for?
A
Academy Award for best foreign film
18
Q
What effect did Taare Zameen Par have on educational provision in Mumbai?
A
It led to improvements in educational provision for children with learning disabilities.
19
Q
What is Ishaan’s relationship with his older brother Yohaan?
A
Yohaan is a star athlete and top student.
20
Q
What does Ishaan’s art teacher, Nikumbh, suspect about Ishaan?
A
That he probably has learning disabilities.
21
Q
What does Nikumbh do to help Ishaan’s situation at school?
A
He provides individual tutoring and explains learning disabilities to the class.
22
Q
What is the outcome of Ishaan’s efforts in the film?
A
He wins the prize for artistic achievement.
23
Q
Fill in the blank: Ishaan’s parents express eternal gratitude to _______.
A
Nikumbh
24
Q
True or False: Ishaan finds supportive friends among his peers at boarding school.
A
True
25
What does Nikumbh share with Ishaan to create a bond?
He confides that he also had learning disabilities in his school days.
26
What genre does Taare Zameen Par belong to?
Bollywood film
27
Which theme is primarily addressed in both A Judgment in Stone and Taare Zameen Par?
Learning disabilities
28
What is the main contrast between the fates of Eunice and Ishaan?
Eunice has a tragic fate while Ishaan has a happy ending.
29
What role does music play in the ending of Taare Zameen Par?
It is joyous and celebratory.
30
What do the diagnostic criteria aim to facilitate?
Reliable diagnosis
## Footnote
The definitions are designed to define disorders clearly to aid in diagnosis.
31
What is avoided in the definitions of disorders?
Notions of causality
## Footnote
This is particularly relevant for learning problems.
32
What was the initial reception of the simple definitions for learning disability?
Dismissed by some major authorities
## Footnote
Some viewed it as defining what learning disability is not.
33
What is the first minimalist diagnostic criterion for specific learning disorder in DSM-5?
Academic skills below expected level
## Footnote
This is relative to age, education, and intelligence.
34
What is the second criterion regarding reading problems in DSM-5?
Interference with academic achievement or work performance
## Footnote
The reading problems must affect the individual's functioning.
35
What must not explain the difficulties in diagnosing specific learning disorder?
Another mental disorder such as intellectual disability
## Footnote
This ensures that the learning disorder is not a symptom of another condition.
36
What is the ICD-10 category of specific reading disorder characterized by?
Minimalist defining characteristics
## Footnote
The ICD-10 uses the qualifier “specific” without specifying a discrepancy between academic achievement and general intellectual disability.
37
What do the DSM-5 criteria omit regarding academic achievement and IQ?
They do not specify a gap between academic achievement and IQ
## Footnote
Early editions included this gap, but current criteria reflect the diminished importance of IQ as a predictor of academic performance.
38
What is a significant issue with measuring intelligence in diagnosing learning disabilities?
It is influenced by the individual's previous education and cultural background
## Footnote
This can lead to inaccuracies in diagnosing the learning problems of cultural minority groups.
39
Why is subtyping children with learning disorders useful?
It facilitates research and remedial interventions
## Footnote
Several classification systems have been developed for this purpose.
40
What are the two main categories of learning problems identified in children?
* Poor verbal skills
* Non-verbal weaknesses
## Footnote
This distinction has influenced thinking and research for several decades.
41
What deficits can be associated with non-verbal learning disorders?
* Visual-spatial-organizational skills
* Tactile-perceptual skills
* Psychomotor skills
* Nonverbal problem-solving skills
## Footnote
These deficits can impact academic remediation and social interactions.
42
What difficulties do children with non-verbal learning disabilities face in social interactions?
They have trouble generating appropriate solutions to social problems
## Footnote
Studies show they may attribute negative intent to others in social scenarios.
43
What emotional recognition difficulty is associated with children who have non-verbal learning disabilities?
Recognizing facial cues that convey emotion
## Footnote
This difficulty may contribute to their social ineptness.
44
What risk is suggested for children with non-verbal learning disabilities?
They are at greater risk for a variety of mental health disorders
## Footnote
Research support for this claim has been inconsistent.
45
What might be a reason for social ineptness in children with non-verbal learning disabilities?
Inability to recognize emotional expressions
## Footnote
This skill involves decoding non-verbal stimuli.
46
True or False: Limited research has identified consistent differences in emotional recognition between adolescents with non-verbal and other forms of learning disabilities.
True
## Footnote
Research has not consistently shown differences in recognizing facial features that convey emotion.
47
What does calculating prevalence estimates depend on?
An accepted standard definition
## Footnote
Definitional issues are complex in psychopathology
48
What are many epidemiological studies of prevalence in learning disabilities based on?
Mathematical discrepancies between IQ and achievement
## Footnote
Example: Rutter and Yule, 1975
49
What two classifications do the DSM and ICD not specify for measuring impaired academic subjects?
How to measure impaired academic subject matter
## Footnote
Examples include school marks, tests of reading comprehension
50
What is a significant issue in diagnosing learning disorders related to population enumeration?
Dimensional versus categorical models of psychopathology
51
In Shaywitz's longitudinal study in Connecticut (2003), what percentage of participants were reading below expected levels?
17.4 percent
52
According to the 2007 report from the US Department of Education, what percentage of 6–11 year olds were identified with specific learning disabilities?
14 percent
53
What percentage of pupils aged 12–17 were identified with specific learning disabilities according to the 2007 report?
25.5 percent
54
What concern is raised regarding educational classifications for learning disabilities?
They are being overused to avoid stigmatizing labels
## Footnote
References: Kavale and Forness, 1998; MacMillan and Siperstein, 2002
55
What incidence of 'reading retardation' was estimated by Rutter and Yule on the Isle of Wight?
Just over 3 percent
56
How does the incidence of reading retardation in impoverished areas of central London compare to the Isle of Wight?
Twice as high
57
What discrepancy was found in prevalence data across different US states?
Threefold difference in identification rates
## Footnote
Example: Kentucky (2.85%) vs. Rhode Island (9.85%)
58
What is the reported proportion of boys receiving special education assistance for learning problems in the United States?
Three out of four pupils.
## Footnote
This statistic is cited from Coutinho and Oswald (2005).
59
What is the common belief about the prevalence of learning disorders among boys compared to girls?
A somewhat higher number of boys are believed to struggle to achieve in school than girls.
## Footnote
This belief is noted in Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz (2008).
60
What bias do teachers exhibit in referring children for assessment of learning problems?
Teachers tend to refer boys for attention and learning problems more than girls.
## Footnote
This is supported by studies from Gillberg (2003) and others.
61
How do girls' learning problems manifest compared to boys', according to Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz?
Girls’ learning problems are manifest in more subtle ways that attract less teacher attention.
## Footnote
This speculation is discussed in the context of teacher referrals.
62
What happens when more objective measures of academic progress are used in assessing learning problems?
There appears to be less of a teacher-referral bias against girls.
## Footnote
Flannery et al. (2000) suggest this based on research.
63
What social concern is debated regarding the gender imbalance in learning disabilities?
That schools may not accommodate boys' learning styles while ignoring real learning problems of girls.
## Footnote
This debate involves perspectives from Sommers (2000) and Jones et al. (2000).
64
How do language features influence the incidence of learning disabilities?
The orthographic features of the language used can affect diagnosis and remediation.
## Footnote
This is noted in relation to languages like Spanish and English.
65
Why is Spanish considered easier for children to learn to read compared to English?
Spanish is completely phonetic, with consistent letter pronunciation.
## Footnote
This characteristic is highlighted in Smythe et al. (2008) and others.
66
What did Jimenez and Garcia de la Cadena find regarding learning disabilities in Guatemala and Spain?
The rate of learning disabilities was at least three times as high in Guatemala compared to Spain.
## Footnote
They attributed this to social conditions and environmental stimulation.
67
What complicates the interpretation of cross-national comparisons in learning disabilities?
Differences in definitions of learning disabilities and the training of professionals.
## Footnote
This complexity is discussed by Sideridis (2007a).
68
What factors affect the incidence of learning disabilities among cultural minority groups?
Written language nature, mastery of host language, and economic hardship.
## Footnote
These influences are noted in the context of multicultural societies.
69
What is a notable trend regarding immigrant children and special education in Germany?
Immigrant children are disproportionately enrolled in special schools for learning problems.
## Footnote
This observation is made by Werning, Loser, and Urban (2008).
70
What is a significant risk factor for learning disabilities according to Melekian (1990)?
Low socio-economic status.
## Footnote
This is based on a study of families attending a special learning clinic near Paris.
71
What may be a more important determinant of learning disabilities than income?
Parents' education level.
## Footnote
This assertion is also made by Melekian (1990).
72
What is the estimated overlap between learning disorders and ADHD?
20–25 percent
## Footnote
This overlap may indicate comorbidity in the overwhelming majority of cases depending on definitions used.
73
What risks do children with comorbid learning disabilities and ADHD face compared to those with only one disorder?
Greater risk for long-term maladjustment
## Footnote
According to a 5-year longitudinal study by Willcutt et al. (2007).
74
What common factor is suggested to influence the comorbidity of learning disabilities and ADHD?
Common genetic influence
## Footnote
Supported by data from a large-scale longitudinal twin study in England.
75
Is there a genetic link between learning disabilities and disruptive behavior disorders?
No
## Footnote
Learning disabilities and behavior disorders may be caused by shared environmental factors instead.
76
What are some common environmental factors linked to learning disabilities and behavior disorders?
* Intellectually unstimulating home background
* Low socio-economic status
* Maternal depression
* Child neglect
77
What relationship did Trzesniewski et al. (2006) find between reading problems and anti-social behavior?
Reciprocal relationship
## Footnote
Anti-social behavior can lead to later reading problems and vice versa.
78
What percentage of children in special educational facilities for severe behavior problems might have learning disabilities?
25 to 50 percent
## Footnote
The percentage varies depending on the definition used.
79
What cycle did McIntosh et al. (2006) describe regarding learning disorders and anti-social behavior?
Coercive cycle of anti-social behavior
## Footnote
Early distaste for academic demands leads to missing instruction and further aversion to academics.
80
List some risky behaviors that adolescents with learning disabilities may engage in.
* Substance abuse
* Unprotected sex
* Shoplifting
* Gambling
* Joyriding
81
What psychosocial factors were found to increase risky behaviors among adolescents with learning disorders?
* Strained relationship with mothers
* Lack of involvement in recreational activities
82
What may trigger a depressive episode in adolescents with learning disorders?
The stress of living with a learning problem
## Footnote
Poor coping strategies may also contribute.
83
What did Wilson et al. (2009) find regarding depression among Canadian adolescents with learning disabilities?
14.6 percent reported being depressed
84
How does academic failure relate to anxiety in students with learning disabilities?
Cumulative experience of academic failure may provoke dysfunctional levels of anxiety
## Footnote
Dysfunctional anxiety can also lead to academic failure.
85
What was the effect size found in the meta-analysis by Nelson and Harwood (2011) regarding learning problems and anxiety?
Moderate effect size of .61
86
What percentage of participants in the studies had substantial anxiety problems?
Over 70 percent
## Footnote
This was not necessarily to the extent of a formal anxiety disorder diagnosis.
87
What factor contributed to variability in results among the studies regarding anxiety?
Differences among sources of information
## Footnote
Informants included teachers, parents, and self-reports.
88
What is a common myth about learning disabilities?
They represent some form of developmental delay rather than a developmental deficit.
89
Name two distinguished individuals who likely had learning disabilities.
* Michelangelo
* Beethoven
90
Who was the Scottish ophthalmologist known for his work on learning disabilities?
James Hinshelwood
91
What neurological condition did Hinshelwood attribute to the tailor's loss of visual memory?
Brain damage caused by alcoholism.
92
What did Hinshelwood observe about schoolboys who could not remember letters or words?
They displayed age-appropriate language and thinking skills.
93
Which two physicians are known for their contributions to understanding learning disabilities in the early 20th century?
* Samuel Orton
* Alfred Strauss
94
What term did Orton use to describe learning problems related to the brain?
Dyslexia
95
What did Strauss and his colleague Werner conceptualize learning problems as part of?
A wider syndrome affecting basic perceptual processes.
96
What acronym was commonly used to describe minimal brain dysfunction?
MBD
97
What was a common educational approach for children with minimal brain dysfunction?
Classrooms with minimal distracting visual stimuli.
98
What did Samuel A. Kirk introduce in the 1960s and 1970s?
The term 'learning disabilities'.
99
How were learning disabilities described according to Kirk?
By the language or communication channel or channels that might be impaired.
100
What was the purpose of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities?
To test intelligence via various channels.
101
What was the outcome of educational interventions based on Kirk's model?
They turned out to be a dismal failure.
102
What recent theories have gained enthusiasm among researchers regarding learning disabilities?
Theories of cognitive style and human information processing.
103
What change occurred in the terminology used for learning disabilities?
Reading disorder began to be called a reading disorder.
104
What is a major challenge in defining learning disabilities as distinct disorders?
Poor achievement can occur for many reasons and be affected by various forms of psychopathology.
105
What is the general consensus regarding the basis of learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities and other learning disorders have a neurological basis.
106
How are learning disabilities traditionally measured?
With traditional psychological tests of intelligence and language functioning.
107
What discrepancies might be observed in children with learning disabilities?
Discrepancies between a child’s processing of information presented verbally and in visual images.
108
What deficits are children with learning disabilities characterized by according to meta-analysis?
Deficits in both short-term and working memory.
109
Which core executive functions are related to reading disability?
Planning ability and working memory.
110
What has the advent of sophisticated imagery techniques contributed to neuropsychological research?
Bolstered research in this area as in most forms of psychopathology.
111
What methodological problems have studies using structural imaging techniques faced?
Small sample sizes resulting in inconsistent findings.
112
Where in the brain are the most consistent abnormalities found related to learning disabilities?
In the perisylvian area of the left hemisphere.
113
What do functional imaging studies suggest about the left hemisphere in children with reading problems?
Abnormalities mostly in several areas of the left hemisphere.
114
What specific regions have shown irregularities in children with learning disabilities?
Anterior system in the left inferior frontal region.
115
Which two posterior regions of the left hemisphere are involved in learning disabilities?
* Dorsal parietotemporal system (angular gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, posterior portions of the superior temporal gyrus)
* Ventral occipitotemporal system (portions of the middle temporal gyrus and middle occipital gyrus).
116
What happens to the differences in posterior brain regions as children with learning disabilities improve their reading?
Differences appear to diminish over several months of remediation.
117
True or False: The differences between children with and without learning disabilities remain constant during remediation.
False.
118
Fill in the blank: Research using traditional psychological tests has yielded many _______.
influential findings.
119
What is the significance of the findings related to the perisylvian area of the left hemisphere?
It contains the circuitry needed for using language.
120
What does functional imaging allow researchers to observe?
The functioning of the brain as the child reads.
121
What has been the general consensus about the neurological origins of learning disabilities?
They have not been doubted.
122
What remains controversial regarding neurological irregularities in learning disabilities?
How and if these irregularities should be translated into applied interventions.
123
What do Plomin and Walker (2003) suggest about the belief of teachers and parents regarding the causation of learning disabilities?
Over 90 percent believe that genetics is at least as important as environmental factors.
124
According to Plomin et al. (2007), what is crucial to consider in the genetic basis of learning disabilities?
The genetic basis of reading, writing and arithmetic ability in general.
125
What concept do Plomin and his colleagues use to describe learning disabilities?
Extreme points of continua.
126
What does the term pleiotropy refer to in genetics?
The process by which the same gene affects multiple traits.
127
What complicates research in genetics related to learning disabilities?
Polygenicity.
128
What do twin studies indicate about the heritability estimates for learning disabilities?
They are very high.
129
What were the concordance rates for reading disability in monozygotic and dizygotic twins according to Oliver and Plomin (2007)?
84 percent for monozygotic twins and 48 percent for dizygotic twins.
130
What were the concordance rates for mathematics disability in monozygotic and dizygotic twins?
70 percent for monozygotic twins and 50 percent for dizygotic twins.
131
What has spurred molecular genetic research in the area of learning disabilities?
The conclusions of behavioral-genetic studies.
132
Fill in the blank: The study of how the same genes can affect a variety of traits is called _______.
[multivariate genetic analysis].
133
What is a common finding regarding the families of children with learning disabilities?
Data about the families of children with learning disabilities is inconsistent
## Footnote
Some studies show little substantial difference between families of children with and without learning disorders.
134
How do mothers of children with learning disorders typically behave?
Mothers tend to be overinvolved, overcontrolling, and inflexible
## Footnote
This is based on studies by Humphries and Bauman (1980) and others.
135
What positive perspective do some researchers have about parental overcontrol?
It may be an appropriate response to the needs for structure, stability, and organization of their children
## Footnote
This view is supported by Margalit and Heiman (1986).
136
What communication issues are found in families of children with learning disorders?
There are indications of communication problems
## Footnote
Heiman, Zinck, and Heath (2008) reported on these issues.
137
How do adolescents with learning disorders perceive their relationships with parents?
They see their relationships as distant and strained
## Footnote
This finding is discussed by McNamara et al. (2005).
138
What varied reactions did families of children with learning disabilities express in focus-group interviews?
Reactions ranged from appropriate assertion and coping to stress and exhaustion
## Footnote
This was found in Dyson's (2010) qualitative study.
139
What percentage of children with learning disabilities experience insecure attachment?
36%
## Footnote
This is compared to 16% among classmates without diagnosed learning problems according to Bauminger and Kimhi-Kind (2008).
140
What negative impact do children with learning disabilities have on their siblings?
They have a negative effect on their siblings
## Footnote
Lardieri, Blacher, and Swanson (2000) discuss this impact.
141
What role do supportive parents play for children with learning disabilities?
They act as an important resiliency resource that helps children learn and adjust
## Footnote
This perspective is emphasized by Wong (2003).
142
What social challenges do children with learning disabilities face?
They have fewer friends, often younger or with learning problems, and experience conflict in friendships
## Footnote
Findings by Wiener and Schneider (2002) highlight these issues.
143
What percentage of children with learning disabilities are socially rejected by their classmates?
80%
## Footnote
This statistic comes from a meta-analysis by Kavale and Forness (1996).
144
How do children with learning disabilities typically engage in social groups according to Estell et al. (2008)?
They usually find their way into social groups but are rarely at the center and tend to have negative reputations
## Footnote
This observation was consistent over several school years.
145
What is a significant emotional experience for children and adolescents with learning disabilities?
They tend to be lonely
## Footnote
This finding is noted by Margalit and Al-Yagon (2002).
146
What risk do isolated children with learning disabilities face in school?
They are often targets for school bullies
## Footnote
This may be linked to their social behavior and vulnerabilities.
147
What do longitudinal studies show about children who read poorly?
Without intervention, they tend to become adults who read poorly
## Footnote
This is supported by Shaywitz’s (2003) longitudinal study.
148
What is the outcome for poor readers over time according to Shaywitz’s study?
They may improve over time, but the gap with competent readers remains
## Footnote
This is illustrated in the study's findings.
149
What did Maughan et al. (2009) discover about the literacy skills of participants from the Isle of Wight study?
The majority still had difficulty with literacy skills as adults
## Footnote
Few engaged in regular reading activities.
150
What role do clinical psychologists play in helping children with learning problems?
They help children cope with comorbid disorders such as depression, anxiety, aggression, or attention problems.
151
Why is it important for psychologists to understand social communication in children with learning disabilities?
Children with learning disabilities may require a more explicit explanation of social messages than their peers.
152
What is a significant asset that psychologists bring to professional teams assisting children with learning disabilities?
Familiarity with the scientific method.
153
What was the focus of the meta-analysis by Swanson, Carson, and Saches-Lee in 1996?
It reviewed the research basis of interventions for children with learning disabilities.
154
List some treatment options included in the Swanson, Carson, and Saches-Lee (1996) meta-analysis.
* Direct instruction in reading
* Training of language or perceptual processes
* Social skills training
* Reality therapy
* Relaxation training
* Conflict resolution
* Awareness training
* Responsibility training
155
What were the results of the Swanson, Carson, and Saches-Lee (1996) meta-analysis regarding cognitive processes?
Interventions focusing on cognitive processes and direct instruction were found to be quite effective.
156
What limitation was noted in the Swanson, Carson, and Saches-Lee (1996) meta-analysis regarding effect sizes?
Effect sizes were lower in studies with randomly assigned participants.
157
What was the overall effect of social skills training for children with learning disabilities as per Forness and Kavale (1996)?
The overall effects were small, approximately two-tenths of a standard deviation unit.
158
True or False: Enthusiasm for social skills training for children with learning disabilities has remained high among practitioners.
False.
159
What challenge do practitioners face when tailoring interventions for children with learning disabilities?
The heterogeneity of the population requires individualized interventions.
160
What is the responsiveness to intervention (RTI) approach?
A method that includes primary and secondary prevention and early treatment of academic problems.
161
What are the three tiers of the RTI approach?
* Tier 1: Identification of students with difficulty using validated measures
* Tier 2: More intensive help for those who do not respond to Tier 1
* Tier 3: Individual designation for those who fail to respond to Tier 2
162
What is a limitation of the RTI approach mentioned in the text?
It may oversimplify learning disabilities and lose helpful insights from individual diagnostic procedures.
163
What is a potential issue with the assessment measures used in the RTI approach?
They can vary enormously from school to school.
164
For which age group is the RTI approach considered best suited?
Younger pupils in the first few years of school.
165
What is considered a mental health disorder due to its neurobiological basis?
Learning disorder
## Footnote
Learning disorders are often comorbid with other psychopathologies such as depression.
166
What does the term dyslexia mean?
Difficulty with reading
## Footnote
The term is derived from Greek and is widely used in educational contexts.
167
When were the first cases of dyslexia and other learning disorders reported?
About 300 years ago
168
What was dyslexia originally considered to be?
A specific visual memory problem
169
Who attributed learning problems to a lack of hemispheric specialization in the brain?
Samuel Orton
170
What term was originally used to describe problems now called learning disorders and attention deficit/hyperactivity?
Minimal brain dysfunction
171
How do process-oriented or cybernetic models conceptualize learning disorders?
As a group of individualized communication processing impairments
172
What types of memory problems do children with dyslexia experience?
Short-term and working memory problems
173
What is necessary to comprehend a text, even if a child recognizes individual words?
Working memory
174
Which area of the brain is implicated in language and learning disabilities?
Perisylvian area of the left hemisphere
175
What does the DSM specify for a diagnosis of reading disorder?
Reading level below that of peers and interference with academic achievement
176
What must not be the basis for diagnosing reading difficulties?
Sensory impairments
177
What is a subtype of learning disability associated with difficulties in social interaction?
Non-verbal learning disability
178
Why is assessing prevalence rates for learning disabilities complex?
Reading ability can be measured in different ways
179
True or False: Boys are more likely than girls to be recommended for help with reading.
True
180
What kind of difficulties do children with learning disabilities often experience?
Social difficulties
181
What may cause social difficulties in children with learning disabilities?
Sensory processing problems
182
What percentage of cases associate learning disorders with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
20–25%
183
How might learning disorders lead to anti-social behavior?
They can lead to poor judgment and frustration
184
How is comorbidity with depression explained in individuals with learning disabilities?
Tendency to give up on learning due to fear of failure
185
What percentage of individuals with learning disorders report anxiety?
70 percent
186
What language factor contributes to lower rates of learning disabilities in Spanish-speaking countries?
Phonetic nature of the Spanish language
187
What complicates the assessment of the biological basis of learning disabilities?
Pleitropy and polygenicity
188
What is higher in monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins, indicating heritability?
Concordance rate for learning disabilities
189
How might parents of children with learning disabilities behave?
Overinvolved, overcontrolling, and inflexible
190
What is often reported by affected adolescents regarding their relationship with parents?
Strained relationship
191
What do psychologists need to address in interventions for children with learning disabilities?
Comorbid disorders
192
What type of interventions are most effective in raising school performance for children with learning disabilities?
Cognitive interventions combined with direct instruction
193
What did a meta-analysis find about social skills training for children with learning disabilities?
It did little to alleviate poor academic and social outcomes
194
What is the RTI approach used for?
Addressing varying levels of reading difficulty in the general population
195
What happens in Tier 1 of the RTI approach?
Children with reading difficulties receive special instruction in small groups
196
What occurs in Tier 2 of the RTI approach?
Children who do not respond to Tier 1 receive special instruction in separate classrooms
197
What does Tier 3 of the RTI approach involve?
Highly individualized intervention that may or may not involve formal diagnosis
